qualitydress

Ballet boot

2008-11-19T07:19:00.000-08:00

The ballet boot is a contemporary style of fetish footwear that merges (the look of) the pointe shoe with the ultimate high heel. The idea (along with the illusion) is to force the wearer's feet almost en pointe, like those of a ballerina, with the aid of long, slender heels. When upright, the feet are held nearly vertical by the heel, thus putting nearly all of the body's weight on the tips of the toes. Some styles are equipped with supports similar to the toe box and shank of pointe shoes, though, unlike those of the pointe shoe, the structural design, construction, and integrity provide only limited mobility.

The heel height is usually 7 inches (18 centimetres) or more, depending on the size of the shoe. This heel is as long as possible, so that the wearer's foot (ankle and toes) are fully pointed/extended in the shoe; any longer would prohibit standing or would require a platform. The boots may rise to any height on the leg, but most designs stop at about the ankle or the knee. They are often laced up the front so that they may be made as tight as possible. The knee-high and thigh-high versions may also have zippers (zips) to allow them to be donned and doffed more easily. The thigh-high versions may be designed to stop the leg being bent at the knee, further restricting mobility[citation needed]. There are also dozens of "ballet shoe" designs, including sandals, mules, and Mary Janes, many of which have buckles.

Ballerinas began dancing en pointe in the Romantic era, with the first recorded performance in 1832 by Marie Taglioni, in La Sylphide. The soft satin slippers that were used took many decades to develop into the stiff-tipped pointe shoes that we have come to recognize in the 20th and 21st centuries, which allow for a greater range of virtuosic technique. Aside from the ballet pointe shoe, another common ancestor to ballet boots and shoes is the Viennese fetish boot (circa 1900), which sported a dramatic 11-inch (28-centimetre) heel; the heel was actually longer than the sole of the shoe, thus making standing and/or walking impossible. Having grown in popularity since the 1980s, ballet boots and shoes are now available worldwide and through online shopping.

Ballet boots and shoes are not, however, intended for prolonged standing or walking. Instead, they act as a fetish object for sexual gratification, heightening the erotic appeal with the elements of bondage and submission. They are thus sometimes used in BDSM play. For example, someone may be put in predicament bondage by being placed in suspension bondage arranged so that he or she must either hang by the arms or rest all of the body's weight on the toes. The boots, however, can cause enough discomfort by themselves: shortly after they are donned, the calves often begin to cramp and sting from overexertion if the wearer is not used to them. International Fetish Model Charlotte Brooke has walked around at FetishCon (a bondage and fetish convention) for a full 9 hour day.[citation needed]

Many fetishists of feet or footwear adore this type of boot. Beginners often find momentary walking and/or standing in them to be difficult and painful, which may also appeal to masochists. Arch-training devices are sometimes used to increase the wearer's instep in order to fit high heels such as these.

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Boots in idiom

2008-11-19T07:14:00.000-08:00

Boots, particularly those worn as protective footwear by workers (work boots) have a reputation for being as hard-wearing as their owners, hence the commonly used simile "tough as old boots".
A long established the sole detached, giving the impression of an open mouth.
Another fate of a discarded boot is in the construction of a musical instrument known as the "mendoza".
Tall boots may have a tab, loop or handle at the top known as a bootstrap, allowing one to use fingers or a tool to provide better leverage in getting the boots on. A German legend about a boy lifting himself by his bootstraps into the air, allowing him to fly, has led to the word's metaphorical use in many different contexts, such as "to pull yourself up by your bootstraps."
Further information: bootstrapping and booting

Calfhigh leather boots with stiletto heel (Le Silla).To "die with one's boots on" means to die from violence as opposed to from natural causes (to "die in bed"); hence Boot Hill as a popular name for Wild West cemeteries.
Boot camp a colloquial term for the initial training of new recruits enlisting in a military organization.
Stormtroopers, skinheads, and other agents of authority or political strongarm tactics are typically referred to by their detractors as "jackbooted thugs," a reference to the tall riding or military-style boot of the Nazi uniform. Authoritarian rule, either by hostile military forces, or by groups of armed intimidators, is imposed by "jackboot tactics."
The "boot", in British English and New Zealand English, refers to the storage area of a car termed the "trunk" in American English.
To "give someone the boot" means to kick them out (of a job, a club, etc.), either literally or figuratively.
To "put the boot off" someone's chin.
"The boot is on the other foot now" means that a situation has become reversed -- a previous victor is now losing, for example.
"Boot" also became a command in early computing, to mean starting up the computer or putting a program into the memory. It is still used today. It arose as short for "pulling oneself up by one's bootstraps".
Wearing "seven-league boots" references a classic children's fairy tale and indicates that a person or company can cover great distances, figuratively or literally, in a single stride.
Boots may also be use as a beer drinking device which one will fill up the boot and drink from it. The most recent notable boot use in the 2006 movie Beerfest using a glass yard with a boot shaped bulb at the end known as "Das Boot", a reference to the 1981 movie, Das Boot.

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Football boot

2008-11-19T07:11:00.000-08:00

Football Boots are an item of footwear worn when playing football. Those designed for grass pitches have studs on the bottom to aid grip.

The first record of a pair of football boots occurs when Henry VIII of England ordered a pair from the Great Wardrobe in 1526. [1] The royal shopping list for footwear states: "45 velvet pairs and 1 leather pair for football".[2] Unfortunately these are no longer in existence.

In association football's Laws of the Game, Law 4: Player's equipment deals with football boots. Until 1891, any kind of projection on the soles or heels of football boots was strictly forbidden. The 1891 revision allowed both studs and bars, so long as they were made of leather and did not project more than half an inch, and they had their fastenings driven in flush with the leather. Studs had to be rounded, neither conical nor pointed and not less than half an inch in diameter. The leather studs were originally hammered into the boots on a semi-permanent basis and players would have several pairs of boots with different length studs, but in the mid-1950s Adidas introduced boots with interchangeable screw-in studs made of rubber or plastic for varying weather conditions. Football boots were originally heavy boots with protection for the ankle, and these remained the standard style of boot in northern Europe for many years where the boots needed to stand up to the rigours of use on muddy winter pitches. A lighter boot without ankle protection and resembling a studded shoe became popular in southern Europe and South America where pitches were generally harder and less muddy and this eventually became the standard style.

Depending on the type of surface, kind of sport and even the wearer's position or role in the game, different cuts of boot and particularly stud arrangements are available. For hard fields, amateur participants may wear a sneaker shoe or a plastic-stud boot (known as a "moulded sole"); in most sports and positions this is adequate, although on a well-grassed or sodden field, a screw stud is recommended for more grip; these may be metal, rubber or plastic.

For rugby union, the screw-in stud (or in some cases a metal-tipped, moulded stud) is preferred, especially in the positions of prop, hooker, and lock, where more grip is required for contested scrums. These screw-in studs are commonly either completely of metal construction or plastic with metal tips, of a maximum length of 18mm. These boots are often heavier than appropriate for other types of football.

Screw-in studs have been banned in some Australian rules football leagues since the 1990s due to the frequency of severe injuries to players as a result of contact with the metal. In football, referees must now check all boots prior to kick off to check for damage to studs, to prevent injury. Before this time, preference between the screw-in stud was based primarily on weather conditions.

More recently, moulded soles with specially designed boots known as blades have moulded soles facing in multiple directions, theoretically to maximise grip and minimise ankle injury. Recently, however, "bladed" football boots have faced criticism from some UK sporting bodies for causing potentially serious injuries to players. English football club Manchester United have even banned its players from wearing boots with bladed studs.[
Originally, association football boots were available only in black, but in more recent years have become available in various colours such as red, white, yellow, silver and gold. Big name companies such as Nike, Adidas, Umbro and the like have made an impact on the market with record sales. Nike's flagship shoe is the Total 90 football boot worn by Wayne Rooney, with other versions such as Mercurial Vapors worn by Cristiano Ronaldo. German company Adidas are responsible for the Predator range worn by David Beckham, Gary Neville, Kaká and Steven Gerrard. Also, the entire German national side wore Adidas boots during the 2006 FIFA World Cup. English firm Umbro produce the X-Boot range endorsed by England captain John Terry and Michael Owen.

In recent times, the most successful of these companies is Nike, and their products enjoy great popularity among professional footballers; among Nike's endorsers are two-time FIFA World Player of the Year Ronaldinho, aforementioned duo Wayne Rooney and Cristiano Ronaldo, striker Ronaldo, and other popular players. Adidas, which has been providing football boots with screw-in studs to the German national side since 1954, have made their impact on the modern market by signing big name players as endorsers: players such as David Beckham, former France captain Zinedine Zidane, Frank Lampard, Steven Gerrard and other successful players. Adidas sells with an image of technology and class in their boots which is key to their success. Umbro, meanwhile, is the weakest of the big name companies in terms of footwear sales, but has a strong association with the England team, whom it produces equipment for to add to the endorsement deals with John Terry and Michael Owen, among others. Both Chelsea and Manchester United had enjoyed long kit manufacturing deals with Umbro, but both teams signed recent deals with Adidas and Nike respectively.

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Skate shoes

2008-11-19T07:03:00.000-08:00

Skate shoes are shoes specially designed and manufactured for use in skateboarding. While many non-skaters choose to wear skate shoes, the design of the skate shoe includes many features designed for use in skating. These features almost invariably include a flat sole made of rubber or polyurethane, a suede or leather composition, and double or triple stitching.

Skate shoe companies have integrated a number of special features into their shoes. These innovations have a number of functions including preventing heel bruises, increasing "board Feel" through increased flexibility, and enhancing grip.

These include but are not limited to:

Vulcanized rubber soles
Air pockets in the heels
Shoelace protectors
DGT (DC Shoes)
Super Suede (DC Shoes)
System G2 Cushioning (etnies, Emerica, éS)[1]
STI foam (etnies, Emerica, éS)[2]
Lace Loops that "hide" shoelaces
'Action Leather'
Thermoplastic Toe Box Reinforcement(Vox)
EVA Mid Sole
Fusion Grip Rubber Outsole
Asymmetric stabilizer
Silicon Rubber makes shoes last longer(SiRC)
Many features of the Skate Shoe are designed to increase its durability. The Skate Shoe is subjected to the abrasiveness of a skateboard's grip tape on a regular basis when worn by skaters. This is why skaters tend to go through shoes quickly. Super Suede, Action Leather, and plastic underlying the toe cap help to increase the durability of a skate shoe. Lace loops and protectors are designed to prevent laces from shredding by shielding the most common areas that contact with grip tape.

Other common features include: Triple stitching with thicker treads to prevent ripping, more width so that there is more contact with the board with thicker tongues and sides to compensate, and deep sole patterns for grip.

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Track spikes

2008-11-19T07:00:00.000-08:00

Track spikes are shoes used at most track and field events. They are lightweight shoes with spikes screwed into their bottom, or spike plate, in order to maximize traction (and therefore performance) when running, throwing or jumping.

Near the front of the foot, there are usually 3 to 11 threaded holes where the spikes may be screwed using a spike wrench. There are usually no spikes near the heel, except for high jump and javelin shoes. Some shoes have permanent or "fixed" spikes.

While all track and field shoes that contain spiked soles are referred to as "track spikes", there are differences between sprinting, distance running, and field event shoes. Sprint spikes generally have more support, and a stiffer, more aggressive spike plate. They often are built minimalistically, with as little material and hence weight as possible. Some have zip-up covers for laces, to improve aerodynamics. Distance spikes have a more relaxed plate, more heel support, and contain fewer spike points. They are built as much for support as they are for speed. Field shoes are very different, with each shoe configured for the demands of its event.

Most spikes have the toe of the shoe pointing up, not touching the ground. This is called "taper" and is designed to make the runner run on their toes to run faster. The more aggressive a shoe is, the stronger the taper. Sprint spikes are generally the most aggressive, with the shoes becoming less aggressive as the distance of the race that they are intended for increases. Marathons, for example, are run in racing flats, which have no taper.

Notable spike manufacturers include Nike, Adidas, Brooks, Mizuno, Saucony, Reebok, Asics, Puma AG and New Balance.

The spikes of the shoe vary in size. While most range between 3 millimetres (3/16 inch) and 12 mm (1/2 in), with the most common being the 6 mm (1/4 in), there are a number of specialty lengths, as well as minimal "blank" spikes used to cover a spike hole. The three main types of spikes are the pyramid, the needle (or pin), and the compression tier (or Christmas tree) spike. Pyramids are conical spikes that taper to a sharp point. They normally have a maximum diameter nearly equal to the diameter of the threads of the spike. Needles also have a sharp point, but a thinner cone diameter. The purpose of both is to penetrate the track surface and so derive its traction from its position. The alternate variant for synthetic tracks is the Christmas tree spike. It uses a terraced cone shape with a flat end to, instead of penetrate, compress the track below it upon impact, and use the track's reaction force to in fact return energy to the runner, increasing his speed. It also reduces the damage incurred in the event of "spiking" or contact by the spikes with another runner. Spikes also come in either steel or ceramic varieties, as well as multiple colors (or unpainted).

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Tricorne

2008-11-17T18:09:00.000-08:00

The tricorne (also tricorn, tri-cornered hat or three-cornered hat) is a style of hat that was popular during the late 17th century and 18th century, falling out of style shortly before the French Revolution. At the peak of its popularity, the tricorne was worn as civilian dress and as part of military and naval uniforms.[1] Its distinguishing characteristic was a practical one: the turned-up portions of the brim formed gutters that directed rainwater away from the wearer's face, depositing most of it over his shoulders. Before the invention of specialized rain gear, this was a distinct advantage.[2]

The black-coloured tricorne has a rather broad brim, pinned up on either side of the head and at the back, producing a triangular shape. The hat was typically worn with the point facing forward. The crown is low, unlike the steeple hats worn by the Puritans or the stovepipe hat of the nineteenth century.[3]

Tricornes ranged from the very simple and cheap to the extravagant, occasionally incorporating gold or silver lace trimming and feathers. In addition, military and naval versions usually bore a cockade or other national emblem at the front. The tricorne later evolved into the bicorne and eventually the cocked hat.[4]

Tricornes survive today as part of the traditional dress of the Chelsea Pensioners (UK)[5], and the Guardia Civil (Spain) (picture of same)[6].

A black feathered tricorne is worn by the Lord Mayor of the City of London for all ceremonials and is in evidence at the annual Lord Mayor's Show in November, when the newly elected Lord Mayor enthusiastically waves it at the crowds.[7]

In the United States, the tricorne is associated with the American Revolution and American Patriots of that era, especially Minutemen (militia members of the American Colonies).[8] Participants in reenactment events often don tricornes, and they also can be seen in sports culture as worn by fans of teams with Revolutionary names, such as the New England Patriots (an American football team)[9], the New England Revolution (a Major League Soccer team)[10], the US national soccer team, the University of Massachusetts[11], and the George Washington University.

In France, synagogue officiants (usually not rabbis), wear the tricorne on formal occasions.

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Top hats in the present

2008-11-17T18:01:00.000-08:00

Top hats are not often worn as daily wear and are normally only used at weddings or other unusual social occasions, such as formal races, first speeches by politicians, or as court dress. The standard top hat is a hard, black silk hat, with fur now often used. The acceptable colours of hats are much as they have traditionally been, with so-called white hats (which are grey), a daytime racing colour, worn at the less formal occasions demanding a top hat, such as Royal Ascot, or with a morning suit.

The collapsible silk opera hat, or crush hat, always black, is still worn on occasions worn with evening wear as part of white tie,[6] and is still made by a few companies, since the materials, satin or grosgrain silk, are still available. The other alternative hat for eveningwear is the normal hard shell.[7]

Thomas Lister, 4th Baron Ribblesdale, 1890 (Sargent)The standard black hats, once bought in different weights, from 'town weight' to 'hunting weight', are rarely owned in specific weights and styles. To wear a top hat, it is normally be slightly tilted on the head, as seen for example with the hunting top hat in the portrait of Lord Ribblesdale by John Singer Sargent.

Top hats are often now connected with the past, as many have not seen one worn in real life not as part of a costume, when it might be worn for example by characters from Dickens' novels. Some of the notable modern associations of the top hat include:

John Bull, a national personification of Britain and sometimes England;
Uncle Sam, a national personification of the United States;
Rich Uncle Pennybags (Stanley Monopoly, better known as Mr. Monopoly), the mascot for the game Monopoly;
The Disney character Scrooge McDuck;
The Cat in the Hat, created by Dr. Seuss;
The Mad Hatter, a character appearing in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland;
Willy Wonka, a chocolate factory owner from the works of Roald Dahl;
Raskolnikov from the novel Crime and Punishment, who used to wear a hat from Zimmerman's shop before killing the pawn broker, but thought better of wearing it to the murder to avoid drawing attention to himself.[8]
In addition, some contemporary popular figures, such as Slash, a guitarist, and R&B artist T-Pain, have been known to wear hats modelled on a top hat.

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Top hat

2008-11-17T17:55:00.000-08:00

A top hat, top-hat, cylinder hat, or plug hat[1] (sometimes also known by the nickname "topper") is a tall, flat-crowned, broad-brimmed hat worn prior to and including the 19th and early 20th centuries. Now, it is usually worn only with morning dress or white tie, or as a specific rock culture fashion statement, such as by guitarist Slash.

Top hats started to take over from the tricorne at the end of the 18th century; a painting by Charles Vernet of 1796, Un Incroyable, shows a French dandy (one of the Incroyables et Merveilleuses) wearing such a hat[2]

Within twenty years top hats had become popular with all social classes, with even workmen wearing them. At that time those worn by members of the upper classes were usually made of felted beaver fur, while those worn by working men were made of rabbit fur; the generic name "stuff hat" was applied to hats made from fur. The hats became part of the uniforms worn by policemen (who could stand on them to look over walls) and postmen (to give them the appearance of authority); since these people spent most of their time outdoors, their hats were topped with black oilcloth.[3]

During the early part of the 19th century felted beaver fur was gradually replaced by silk "hatter's plush", though the silk topper met with resistance from those who preferred the beaver hat. A short-lived fad in the 1820s and 1830s was the "Wellington" style of top-hat with concave sides. The peak of the top hat's popularity in the 1840s and the 1850s saw it reach its most extreme form, with ever higher crowns and narrow brims. The stovepipe hat was a variety with straight sides, while one with slightly convex sides was called the "chimney pot".[4] The stovepipe hat was popularized in the US by Abraham Lincoln during his presidency; it is said that Lincoln would keep important letters inside the hat.

During the middle part of the 19th century the top hat developed from a fashion into a symbol of urban respectability, and this was assured when Prince Albert started wearing them in 1850; the subsequent rise in popularity of the top hat led to a decline in beaver hats, sharply reducing the size of the beaver-trapping industry in North America.

The nineteenth century is sometimes known as the Century of the Top Hat. The historian James Laver once made the observation that an assemblage of "toppers" looked like factory chimneys and thus added to the mood of the industrial era. In England, post-Brummel dandies went in for flared crowns and swooping brims. Their counterparts in France, known as the “Incroyables,” wore top hats of such outlandish dimensions that there was no room for them in overcrowded cloakrooms until Antoine Gibus came along in 1823 and invented the collapsible top hat. Such hats are often called an opera hat, though the term can also be synonymous with any top hat, or any tall formal men's hat. In the 1920s they were also often called high hats.

However, at its peak in popularity a reaction developed against the top hat, with the middle classes adopting bowler hats and soft felt hats such as fedoras, which were more convenient for city life, as well as being suitable for mass production. In comparison, a top hat needed to be handmade by a skilled hatter, with few young people willing to take up what was obviously a dying trade. The top hat became associated with the upper class, becoming a target for satirists and social critics. By the end of World War I it had become a rarity in everyday life. It continued to be used for formal wear, with a Morning dress in the daytime and with evening clothes (dress coat) until the late 1930s. (The top hat is featured as one of the original tokens in the board game Monopoly.)

The top hat persisted in certain areas, such as politics and international diplomacy, for several more years. In the newly-formed Soviet Union, there was a fierce debate as to whether its diplomats should follow the international conventions and wear a top hat, with the pro-toppers winning the vote by a large majority.

Top-hats are sometimes associated with stage magic. In 1814 a French magician named Louis Comte became the first conjurer on record to pull a white rabbit out of a top hat. They also appear as a form of party hat and are popular amongst persons in the gothic subculture.

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The Swedish student cap

2008-11-17T17:50:00.000-08:00

The Swedish student cap (studentmössa), used since the mid-19th century, normally has a white crown, a black or dark blue band and a black peak. At the front of the band is a cockade of blue and yellow, the colours of the Swedish flag.

In the Nordic countries, student caps were first adopted as a common mark of recognition by the students from Uppsala University on the occasion of a Scandinavian student meeting in Copenhagen in 1845. In the following years similar caps were adopted by the students at the other Swedish university (Lund) and by the students in Denmark, Norway and Finland. Caps of the same type are known to have been used by German students in the early 19th century, and it is possibly that the original impulse came from Germany.

Swedish student caps traditionally come in two main variants, named after the two universities in existence at the time of their original adoption. The Uppsala cap has a black band, blue and yellow lining and a somewhat soft crown, while the Lund cap has a dark blue band, red lining and a stiffer crown. The earliest student cap known to have been preserved, a mid-19th century Uppsala cap in the collections of the Nordic Museum but currently exhibited at the Uppland Provincial Museum (in Uppsala), is considerably softer and looser in style than the modern or even late 19th century caps.

The Uppsala cap is traditionally only worn only in summer, from Walpurgis Night until the end of September. In Lund, the white cap is also donned at Walpurgis and taken off in the fall, but students can exchange it for a winter variant with a dark blue crown during the rest of the year.

A major variation on the student cap is the one worn by engineering students, the teknologmössa, which has the same basic shape as the regular student cap but has a triangular flap hanging down on the right side ending in a tassel. The cap for engineering students usually come in dark winter and white summer versions. The tasseled cap originates at the Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg, where it was first introduced in 1879, and is influenced by the Norwegian student cap, the duskelue, which from 1856 had a tassel; during the period of the Swedish-Norwegian union (until 1905) a large number of Norwegian students studied at Chalmers. It later spread to the Royal Institute of Technology and the other Swedish engineering schools.

Originally associated with completion of the studentexamen, the entrance examination to the universities, which was at the time of the original adoption of student caps always taken at the universities, the cap followed the studentexamen to the secondary schools when these took over the final examination of their students in 1864. After this point it was donned upon graduation by everybody who completed the studentexamen, whether they continued to university or not.

As the studentexamen in reality remained reserved for boys (and later girls) from the bourgeoisie, a very large proportion of whom did enroll at university, the conversion of the cap to a form of secondary school graduation cap did not in fact result in the cap losing its association with university students. To some extent this happened later, through the combination of two factors: firstly, the radicalism of the 1960s and 1970s, which influenced many students to stop using their caps (regarded as a sign of belonging to the bourgeoisie) or even burn them publicly. Secondly, the simultaneous (1968) reform of the secondary school system, through the abolition of the studentexamen and the introduction of a large number of secondary school programmes, many of which were vocational in character and not intended to prepare for higher studies but all frequently co-existing in the same schools.

The large number of new programmes introduced after 1970 also led to a proliferation of new types of student caps, such as the one with a red band (instead of the black or dark blue band of the traditional caps) used by students completing the two-year vocational programmes. With the caps now being used upon graduation by almost all secondary school students, and with many of the caps being more strongly associated with the secondary school attended than with the common identity as a Swedish student, as had originally been intended. Some of the graduates from vocational programme have variations in the colouring of the brim in accordance with their programme. Examples include burgundy for nursing, green for horticulture and blue for engineering (only on the Uppsala model). In addition, most hats also have a thin coloured hatband to signify the student’s programme. Colours include green for natural sciences, royal blue for social sciences and silver for construction. There are also schools that have their own variants of the Student cap with special insignia and or variations.

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Sombrero

2008-11-17T17:46:00.000-08:00

In English-speaking countries sombrero typically refers to a type of hat originating in Mexico. The English word sombrero is a loan word from Spanish, where the term is used to refer to any hat with a brim. It derives from the Spanish word sombra, meaning "shade" or "shadow". Spanish speakers outside Mexico refer to what English speakers call a Sombrero as a "Mexican hat" (sombrero mexicano).

Sombreros usually have a somewhat high pointed crown and a very wide brim, which may be slightly upturned at the edge, used for protection from the hot sun in Mexico. Peasant sombreros are usually made of straw, while wealthier Hispanics wear sombreros made of felt. It is almost unseen in modern urban settings, except as part of a folkloric outfit worn in certain festivities. The Sombrero hat is often used in traditional Mexican celebrations.

Sombreros come in many splendid straw woven designs with great coloring, also they have a chin string to hold the hat in place. They were designed so wide to provide a big shade from the very sunny climate of Mexico: the super wide hat is big enough to cast a shadow over the head, neck and shoulders of the wearer.

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Traditional wear

2008-11-16T21:21:00.000-08:00

For schools at which the graduation regalia is rented or borrowed by the student the tassel might be a part of the rental, though the tassel may be provided separately. Some schools that do not provide a tassel for graduates to keep may offer a souvenir tassel for sale that is not worn with the regalia.

Recent graduates who own an automobile, particularly in the United States, may customarily display their tassel hanging from the rear-view mirror.

In the UK, the tassel is short and is gathered at the button at the center of the board whereas other places have it gathered at a cord that is attached to the button making it longer.

As with other forms of headdress, academic caps are not generally worn indoors by men (other than by the Chancellor or other high officials), but are usually carried. In some graduation ceremonies caps have been dispensed with for men, being issued only to women, who do wear them indoors, or have been abandoned altogether. This has led to urban legends in a number of universities in the United Kingdom which have as a common theme that idea that the wearing of the cap was abandoned in protest at the admission of women to the university. This story is told at the University of Cambridge, Durham University, the University of Bristol, the University of St Andrews and Trinity College, Dublin among others. In other universities in Ireland, such as the University of Limerick, the rumour was that the mortarboard represented the "capping" of female graduate at bachelors or masters levels.[citation needed]

There are several types of mortarboard that are usually made. The most common in the UK is the 'folding skull' in which the skull part can be folded for ease of storing and carrying. Traditionally, the mortarboard had a 'rigid skull' which is considered more aesthetically pleasing and better fitting than a folding-skull one. Both types require the wearer to wear the appropriate size to fit. In the US, an 'elasticated skull' is mostly used which eliminates the need to make many mortarboards in different hat sizes. Some mortarboards, especially those in east Asia are laced-up at the back of the skull cap.

The correct way to wear a mortarboard is to have the larger part of the skull of the mortarboard at the back of the head with the top board parallel to the ground. A proper fitting mortarboard should not fall off easily.

Lace-up mortarboards typically used in China and other Asian universities.Until the second half of the 20th century, mortarboards were often worn by schoolteachers, and the hat remains an icon of the teaching profession.

Mortarboards are often seen in party supply shops in the United States in May and June, when they appear in the form of party decorations, on commemorative gifts such as teddy bears, and on congratulatory greeting cards.

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Non-Jewish equivalents

2008-11-16T21:15:00.000-08:00

The Israelites might have worn a headdress similar to that worn by the Bedouins. This consists of a keffieh folded into a triangle, and placed on the head with the middle ends hanging over the neck to protect it, while the other two are knotted together under the chin. A thick woolen cord (’akal) holds the cloth firmly on the head.

In later times, the Israelites, both men and women, adopted a turban-like headdress more like that of the Fellahs of today. The latter wear a little cap (takiyah), usually made of cotton cloth folded doubly or triply, which is supposed to shield the other parts of the head covering from perspiration. With boys, this often forms the only head covering. Under this cap are placed one, often two, felt caps (lubbadah); and the national head-dress of the Turks, the red tarboosh. Around this, finally, is wound either an unbleached cotton cloth with red stripes and fringe, a gaily-flowered mandil, a red-and-yellow-striped keffich, a black cashmere scarf, a piece of white muslin, or a colored cloth. Such a covering not only keeps off the scorching rays of the sun, but it also furnishes a convenient pillow on occasion, and is not seldom used by the Fellahs for preserving important documents.

That the headdress of the Israelites might have been of this kind may be inferred from the use of the noun צַנִיף tzanif (the verb tzanaf meaning "to roll like a ball," Isaiah 22:18) and by the verb חַבָּש habash ("to wind," comp. Ezekiel 16:10; Jonah 2:6). As to the form of such turbans, nothing is known, and they may have varied according to the different classes of society, as was customary with the Assyrians and Babylonians, whose fashions likely influenced the costume of the Israelites -- particularly during and after the Babylonian Exile. [2]

Middle Eastern and North African Jewish community headdress may also resemble that of the ancient Israelites. In Yemen, the wrap around the cap was called מַצַר massar; the head covering worn by all women according to Dath Mosha was a גַּרגוּש "Gargush".

Many Muslims wear a kippah equivalent called a topi. The origin of this practice, and any other practice of men covering their heads with various head gear, is the general sunnah (or normative practice / example) of the Prophet Muhammad to cover one's head. Until more recent times, men in most Muslim societies were rarely seen without headdress of some sort. A taqiyah (cap) covers most of the head. Covering the head is seen by Muslims to transcend many religious traditions, confirming Muslim belief in the practice's Divine origin, as, according to Muslim belief, all Prophets of God preached the same basic message with varying cultural and social adjustments throughout time. Finally, the modern taqiyahs worn by Muslims are analogous to the kippot worn by observant Jews whether in the Middle East or elsewhere. The Jews of the Middle East probably picked up much of their clothing and head gear from the wider society in which they lived. Hence, no different from their Muslim neighbors and compatriots throughout time, the kippah can be seen as much a product of the Middle East and its diverse social fabric of co-existence as is its analog (in terms of head coverings), the taqiyah.

The doppa, a square or round skullcap originating in the Caucasus and worn by Kazan Tatars, Uzbeks and Uyghurs is another example of a Muslim skullcap. The doppa is derived from a Turkic, more pointed ancestral cap, which can be seen in some of the portraits of Jalaleddin Mingburnu.

Conservative Muslims in Malaysia, especially in the rural areas, are often seen wearing a thin kopiah, which looks almost exactly like the kippah in outward appearance.

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Kippah as identification

2008-11-16T21:10:00.000-08:00

According to the Shulchan Arukh, Jewish men are required to cover their heads and should not walk more than four cubits without a hat.[4] Wearing a kippah is described as "honoring God".[5] The Mishnah Berurah modifies this ruling, adding that the Achronim established it as a requirement to wear a head covering even when traversing less than four cubits,[6] and even when one is simply standing in place.[7] This applied both indoors as well as out.[8]

This ruling is echoed by the Kitzur Shulchan Aruch, a concise version of the Shulchan Aruch authored by Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried.[9] He cites a story from the Talmud (Shabbat 156b) about Rav Nachman bar Yitzchok who might have become a thief had his mother not saved him from this fate by insisting that he cover his head, which instilled in him the fear of God.[9]

In many communities, boys are encouraged to wear a kippah from a young age in order to ingrain the habit.[10]

According to Rabbi Isaac Klein's Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, a Jew ought to cover his head when in the synagogue, at prayer or sacred study, when engaging in a ritual act, and when eating.[11]

The kippah is traditionally worn by Jewish men. Observant Jewish women who have been married (including widows and divorcees) cover their heads more completely with scarves, hats, or wigs, but for a totally different reason. The tradition for women comes from a different source than that of men and originates from the laws dealing with the sotah (suspected adulteress; see Numbers 5), implying that a Jewish married woman should cover her hair under normal circumstances.[12] Today, some women — mainly Reform and Conservative Jews — wear a kippah. Some Jews wear kippot only while praying, eating, reciting a blessing, or studying Jewish religious texts.

In modern contexts, it is also common for non-religious Jews or even non-Jews to wear a simple kippah, or to cover their heads as a sign of respect, when present at Jewish religious services or at ostensibly Jewish sites, such as Yad Vashem and the Western Wall. Male Jews and non-Jews alike are asked to don a skullcap in the vicinity of the Western Wall, and returnable skullcaps are provided for this use.

Any form of head covering is acceptable according to halakha (Jewish law). There are no hard and fast rules on the subject, although the compact, lightweight nature of a kippah, along with the fact that hats for men have fallen out of fashion in the West over last few decades, may have contributed to its popularity. Kippot have become identified as a symbol of Judaism over the last century. Haredi men, who mostly wear large black cloth or velvet kippot, often wear fedoras with their kippot underneath. In the Hasidic community, this double head-covering has Kabbalistic meaning.

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Homburg (hat)

2008-11-16T21:07:00.000-08:00

A homburg is a stiff felt hat that is superficially very similar to the trilby or fedora, since both can have a crease from the front to the back of the crown, known as a "center dent". The homburg usually has no pinches, and has a brim with the edge sharply turned up all the way around. It is typically made from wool or fur felt and has a grosgrain hatband and brim treatment with an optional feather. A variant form is the "lord's hat", which lacks the edge ribbon, and may, optionally, be pinched.

It was popularized by Edward VII after he visited Bad Homburg in Hesse, Germany, and brought back a hat of this style. Like the trilby or fedora, the homburg was once quite popular and is still available in almost any color, but the most common colors are black, grey, and brown. In Britain a black homburg became widely known in the 1930s as an "Anthony Eden" after the Government Minister of that name.

In formality, the homburg ranks just below the top hat, and above hats such as the bowler or fedora. It is appropriate (often with a topcoat) with a stroller, or with black tie.

The "Godfather" hat, as it is sometimes referred to in American popular culture, was made popular by many legendary gangster and mafia movies made in Hollywood. It was also made famous as a trademark of British comedian Tony Hancock. Flower power pop group Procol Harum had a hit single "Homburg" in 1967 about the hat. The biggest names in the world of "hip-hop" brought it back into style in the late 1990s and is still popular with many artists of today. Many of the hats sold as "Godfather homburgs" have a wider brim than a regular homburg, with the brim rolled up more on the sides, like a bowler.

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Fascinator

2008-11-16T21:03:00.000-08:00

A fascinator is a headpiece, a style of millinery. The word originally referred to a fine, lacy head covering akin to a shawl made from wool or lace. The term had fallen almost into disuse by the 1970s.[1]

In the early 21st century the term has made a comeback but the meaning has slightly changed and now is used to describe a delicate, slightly frivolous head decoration worn on the hair almost exclusively by women. Modern fascinators are commonly made with feathers, flowers and/or beads. They attach to the hair by a comb, headband or clip. They are an adornment for formal attire and are an alternative to wearing a hat. They are particularly popular at premium horse racing events, such as the Grand National and the Melbourne Cup. They may also be worn at weddings by guests, and also as an alternative to a bridal veil.

They are available pre-made, but are also quite easy and cost effective to self assemble. They are also sold in kit form.

Fascinators have become increasingly popular due to Kenley Collins from Project Runway Season 5 (2008). Collins herself frequents the feather fascinator look and often uses them on her models as well.

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Dunce cap

2008-11-15T07:29:00.000-08:00

A dunce cap, also variously known as a dunce hat, dunce's cap, or dunce's hat, is a pointy hat. In popular culture, it is typically made of paper and often marked with a D or the word "dunce", and given to schoolchildren to wear as punishment by public humiliation for misbehaviour and, as the name implies, stupidity. While this is now a rare practice, it is frequently depicted in popular culture such as animated television series.

A very similar practice on the European continent was a paper headdress known as donkey's ears, as a symbol of 'asinine' stupidity.

The word "dunce" was originally a reference to Bl. John Duns Scotus, a 13th century scholastic theologian, whose books on theology, philosophy, and logic were University textbooks. His followers, termed "Dunsmen" or "Dunses", were later challenged about their system of hair-splitting and distinctions. Their obstinacy over an increasing array of challenges posed first by humanists and then by reformers, led to the term "dunses" to denote fools in general.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition), "dunce cap" didn't enter the English language until after the term "dunce" was so transformed. John Ford's 1624 play The Sun's Darling is the first recorded mention of the related term "dunce table," a table provided for duller or poorer students; "dunce cap" appears first in the 1840 novel The Old Curiosity Shop by Charles Dickens.

The Straight Dope notes that Duns Scotus accepted the wearing of conical hats to increase learning, in the belief that it would funnel knowledge to its wearer (and perhaps in emulation of wizards).

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Cultural significance

2008-11-15T07:25:00.000-08:00

The bowler became a cultural identifier, ironically with two completely different meanings: throughout most of England it was associated with professional servants, e.g. butlers, and so upon seeing a man wearing a bowler in a pub or on the street, it was fairly safe to assume he was a "gentleman's gentleman," meaning a valet, manservant or butler; in London itself, however, it was associated with professionals, and so a man wearing a bowler in The City could safely be assumed to be a lawyer, stockbroker, banker or government official. As the traditional headwear of London city 'gents' it has become something of an English cultural icon. The bowler was also to some extent adopted by the surrealist movement, particularly by Magritte, as an object which typified the absurdity of "normal life" and appeared in many surrealist paintings in one guise or another.

However, Englishmen stopped wearing hats as a matter of course in the 1960s, and most young English people in the 21st century have never seen a bowler hat worn as part of normal dress. The decline of the bowler is possibly linked to the rise in car ownership in the 1960s which would make it difficult to wear[original research?]. It is, however, still commonly seen worn at some formal public events, such as by town councillors at Armistice Day ceremonies. It is also traditionally worn by members of the Orange Order in Northern Ireland during their 12 July annual parades, though usage has declined. A bowler hat was once worn by the gaffer of a team of furniture removers although this tradition has died out.

In the United States this hat is also known as a derby hat, after Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, founder in 1780 of the Epsom Derby. The cultural significance of this style of hat was slightly different in the United States; though certainly not exclusively so, the derby tended to be associated with urban culture, and particularly with well-to-do people who had risen from the working class. Hence, it was often seen on the heads of "machine politicians", urban Irish-descended "ward heelers" and others, and so often appears in movies, comic books and comic strips of the 1930s and 1940s as a silent signal that the wearer is of this group. Al Smith, who exemplified the urban Tammany politician of the 1920s, was often seen in his distinctive derby; while typically, men's full-sized derbies are black, Al Smith always wore a brown derby.

A small bowler hat worn at an angle is typically referred to as a "gruff hat" or "pickle hat".[citation needed]

In Germany, the hat is known as Melone (melon), due to its shape. Similarly in France it is known as "chapeau melon".

The bowler hat - called a bombin - has also been worn by Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia since the 1920s when it was introduced to Bolivia by British railway workers. For many years a factory in Italy manufactured the hats for the Bolivian market, but they are now produced locally.

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Berets Other associations

2008-11-15T07:19:00.000-08:00

Berets (chapelas, from Basque txapela) have become the standard headgear of the Castilian peasant. In the Basque Country, a commemorative beret is the usual trophy in sport or poetry competitions, including Basque rural sports or the Basque portions of the Tour de France. The Basque word for "champion", txapeldun, literally means "the one in a beret".

The beret was once considered the national hat of France and is part of the stereotypical image of the Onion Johnny. It has diminished in popularity, just as hats for men all over the world have waned in popularity, since about 1960. Still considered a matter of French pride, it is worn by both women and men. Black is the traditional colour. There are only two manufacturers left in France, and a few fly-by-night manufacturers elsewhere, that make berets. Sizing is still a problem, because American sizes and European sizes do not match exactly, and the approximate sizes—S, M,L,XL— that are most commonly offered for sale are a poor approximation of either: European size 59 (59 cm) is approximately American size 7 3/8 and is between M and L.

The beret is also a stereotyped trademark of film directors, artists (particularly painters), intellectuals, Bohemians, and Beatniks of any nationality.

Schoolgirls often wear berets with their school uniforms. When searching for a suitable style of beret to be worn by the Royal Tank Regiment (RTR), the French Chasseurs alpins was rejected as being too big. The RTR selected a model worn by a Girls School.

Some British comedians have been identified with the beret; Chris Langham is recorded as having announced to actor Ken Campbell that he has named the tassle or stalk which is present in some berets the langham, after himself. Michael Crawford also wore a beret as Frank Spencer. Other entertainment figures identified with the beret include Jamie Hyneman of MythBusters, and Fred Berry who played Rerun in What's Happening!! and What's Happening Now!! (as well as in real life). It is said that Groucho Marx wore a beret that he could carry in his pocket to avoid tipping hat-check girls when he went to restaurants and night clubs.

The beret is sometimes worn simply as a fashion statement.

Venezuelan leader Hugo Chávez in red beret and shirt.Famous people who have worn berets include

artist Pablo Picasso
psychologist Jean Piaget
chemist Linus Pauling
musician/activist John Lennon
Revolutionary Che Guevara
Outlaw Bonnie Parker

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Beret

2008-11-15T07:11:00.000-08:00

A beret (pronounced [be'rɛ] in French or /ˈbɛreɪ/ in English[1], except in the USA, where it is usually pronounced /bəˈreɪ/[2]) is a soft round cap, usually of wool felt, with a flat crown, which is worn by both men and women and traditionally associated with France.

Berets are worn by many military and police units, and in some countries are particularly associated with elite units, who often wear berets in more unusual colours (such as the maroon of Commonwealth parachute troops and the German Kommando Spezialkräfte KSK, the green of the Royal Marines Commandos, French Commandos (Bérets verts), and United States Army Special Forces (Green Berets), the scarlet of the elite Soviet Internal Troops (Spetsnaz), the beige or tan of Commonwealth special forces units (SAS) and U.S. Army Rangers, or the wide black of French Chasseurs alpins, the first military unit to have worn berets.

The beret when properly worn fits snugly around the head, and the soft crown can be shaped in a variety of ways – it is commonly pushed to one side (local custom usually prescribes which side, but there is no universal rule). Berets were originally worn by Northern Basque peasants (from the border area of Southern France, and Northern Spain) and were knitted from wool. Today berets are normally made from woven wool, wool felt, or acrylic fibre.Uniform berets feature a headband or sweatband attached to the wool, made either from leather or silk, sometimes with a drawstring allowing the wearer to tighten the hat. The drawstrings are, according to custom, either tied and cut off/tucked in or else left to dangle. The beret is often adorned with a cap badge, either in cloth or metal. Some berets have a piece of buckram or other stiffener in the position where the badge is intended to be worn. Berets are also often lined with silk, imitation silk, or other material. Though in some militaries the liner is removed in order to shape (called "forming") the beret, this is usually done without permission from a superior officer because it impedes its head-warming capacities.In military berets, the headband is turned down (which makes it visible); but, in the Basque-style beret (also worn by selected military units such as the Belgian Chasseurs Ardennais), it is usually folded in.

Berets have been a component of the uniforms of many armed forces throughout the world since the mid-20th century. A light blue beret is the international symbol of the United Nations Peacekeeping forces. Military berets are usually pulled to the right, but the armies of some European countries (including France) have influenced the pull to the left.

The use of berets as a military headdress dates back to the creation of the French Chasseurs alpins in the early 1880s. These mountain troops were issued with a new style of uniform which included several features which were very practical and advanced by the standards of the time, notably the large and floppy blue beret which they still retain (see below). This was so unfamiliar a fashion outside France that it had to be described in an British encyclopedia in 1911 as "a sort of tam o'shanter hat".[3]

Berets have features that make them very attractive to the military: They are cheap and easy to make in large numbers, they can be manufactured in a wide range of colours to enhance branch or regimental esprit de corps, they can be rolled up and stuffed into a pocket without damage and they can be worn with headphones (this is one of the reasons why tank crews came to adopt the beret). However, they are not so useful in field conditions for an infantryman, as they do not offer the protection for the face against sun and rain that a peaked or wide brimmed hat does.

The beret was found particularly useful as a uniform for armoured vehicle crewmen, and the British Tank Corps (later Royal Tank Corps) adopted the headdress as early as 1918. German AFV crews in the late 1930s also adopted a beret with the addition of a padded crash helmet inside. The colour black became popular as a tank crew headdress since it did not show oil stains picked up inside the interior of a vehicle. Black berets continue to be worn by armoured regiments throughout the Commonwealth.

Berets have become the default military headdress of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, just as the tricorne, shako, kepi and peaked cap were in various early eras. The beret is now worn by elements of the military personnel of the majority of nations across the world. The three major hold-outs were the United States, Russia, and China (PRC) - all have now followed the example of the other armies in adopting berets.

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Bearskin

2008-11-15T07:05:00.000-08:00

A bearskin is a tall fur cap, usually worn as part of a ceremonial military uniform. Traditionally, the bearskin was the headgear of grenadiers, and is still worn by regiments of grenadiers and foot guards in various armies.

The cloth caps worn by the original grenadiers in European armies during the 17th century were frequently trimmed with fur. The practice fell into disuse until the second half of the eighteenth century when grenadiers in the British, Spanish and French armies began wearing high fur hats with cloth tops and, sometimes, ornamental front plates. The purpose appears to have been to add to the apparent height and impressive appearance of these troops both on the parade ground and the battlefield.[1]

During the nineteenth century, the expense of obtaining bearskin caps (and difficulty of maintaining them in good condition on active service) led to this form of headdress becoming generally limited to guardsmen, bands or other units having a ceremonial role. The British Foot Guards did however wear bearskins in battle during the Crimean War and on peacetime manoeuvers until the introduction of khaki service dress in 1902.

Until 1914 bearskins were worn in parade uniform by the Regiment der Grenadiers ("Regiment of Grenadiers") of the Belgian Army. The modern regiment has readopted this headdress for limited ceremonial purposes.

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Epoxy

2008-11-13T18:48:00.000-08:00

In chemistry, epoxy or polyepoxide is a thermosetting epoxide polymer that cures (polymerizes and crosslinks) when mixed with a catalyzing agent or hardener. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A. The first commercial attempts to prepare resins from epichlorohydrin were made in 1927 in the United States. Credit for the first synthesis of bisphenol-A-based epoxy resins is shared by Dr. Pierre Castan of Switzerland and Dr. S.O. Greenlee of the United States in 1936. Dr. Castan's work was licensed by Ciba, Ltd. of Switzerland, which went on to become one of the three major epoxy resin producers worldwide. Ciba's epoxy business was spun off and later sold in the late 1990s and is now the advanced materials business unit of Huntsman Corporation of the United States. Dr. Greenlee's work was for the firm of Devoe-Reynolds of the United States. Devoe-Reynolds, which was active in the early days of the epoxy resin industry, was sold to Shell Chemical (now Hexion, formerly Resolution Polymers and others).

As of 2006, the epoxy industry amounts to more than US$5 billion in North America and about US$15 billion world-wide. The Chinese market has been growing rapidly, and the market size is more than 30% of the total worldwide market. It is made up of approximately 50–100 manufacturers of basic or commodity epoxy resins and hardeners of which the three largest are Hexion (formerly Resolution Performance Products, formerly Shell Development Company; whose epoxy tradename is "Epon"), The Dow Chemical Company (tradename "D.E.R."), and Huntsman Corporation's Advanced Materials business unit (formerly Vantico, formerly Ciba Specialty Chemical; tradename "Araldite"). In 2007 Huntsman Corporation agreed to merge with Hexion (owned by the Apollo Group)[1][2]. KUKDO Chemical is one of the largest epoxy manufacturers in Asia, and recently their capacity has been increased up to 210,000 MT/Y (Korea 150,000 MT/Y, China 60,000 MT/Y and will be increased totally 300,000 MT/Y by 2009). Nanya Plastic also has the capacity of over 250,000 MT/Y (Taiwan and China), which is mostly for captive use. There are over 50 smaller epoxy manufacturers primarily producing epoxies only regionally, epoxy hardeners only, specialty epoxies, or epoxy modifiers.

These commodity epoxy manufacturers mentioned above typically do not sell epoxy resins in a form usable to smaller end users, so there is another group of companies that purchase epoxy raw materials from the major producers and then compounds (blends, modifies, or otherwise customizes) epoxy systems from these raw materials. These companies are known as "formulators". The majority of the epoxy systems sold are produced by these formulators and they comprise over 60% of the dollar value of the epoxy market. There are hundreds of ways that these formulators can modify epoxies—by adding mineral fillers (talc, silica, alumina, etc.), by adding flexibilizers, viscosity reducers, colorants, thickeners, accelerators, adhesion promoters, etc.. These modifications are made to reduce costs, to improve performance, and to improve processing convenience. As a result a typical formulator sells dozens or even thousands of formulations—each tailored to the requirements of a particular application or market.

The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and other thermosetting resins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic). The chemistry of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations allows cure polymers to be produced with a very broad range of properties. In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties. Many properties of epoxies can be modified (for example silver-filled epoxies with good electrical conductivity are available, although epoxies are typically electrically insulating). Variations offering high thermal insulation, or thermal conductivity combined with high electrical resistance for electronics applications, are on offer.[3]

Epoxies find significant use in many applications which are described in following sections.

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Bookcase

2008-11-13T18:43:00.000-08:00

A bookcase, or bookshelf, is a piece of furniture, almost always with horizontal shelves, used to store books.

When books were written by hand and were not produced in great quantities, they were kept in small containers which owners (usually the wealthy or clergy) carried with them. As manuscript volumes accumulated in religious houses or in homes of the wealthy, they were stored on shelves or in cupboards. These cupboards are the direct predecessors of today's bookcases. Later the doors were discarded, and the evolution of the bookcase proceeded. Even then, however, the volumes were not arranged in the modern fashion. They were either placed in piles upon their sides, or if upright, were ranged with their backs to the wall and their edges outwards. The band of leather, vellum or parchment which closed the book was often used for the inscription of the title, which was thus on the fore-edge instead of on the spine.

It was not until the invention of printing had greatly reduced the cost of books, thus allowing many more people direct access to owning books, that it became the practice to write the title on the spine and shelve books with the spine outwards. Early bookcases were usually of oak, which is still deemed by some to be the most appropriate wood for an elegant library.

The oldest bookcases in England are those in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, which were placed in position in the last year or two of the sixteenth century; in that library are the earliest extant examples of shelved galleries over the flat wall-cases. Long ranges of book-shelves are somewhat severe in appearance, and many attempts have been made by means of carved cornices and pilasters to give them a less austere appearance. These attempts were most successful as in the hands of the English cabinetmakers of the second half of the eighteenth century.

Both Chippendale and Sheraton made or designed many bookcases, mostly glazed with little lozenges encased in fretwork frames, often of great charm and elegance. In the eyes of some, the grace of some of Sheraton's satinwood bookcases has rarely been equalled. The French cabinetmakers of the same period were also highly successful with small ornamental cases. Mahogany, rosewood satinwood and even choicer exotic timbers were used; they were often inlaid with marquetry and mounted with chased and gilded bronze. Dwarf bookcases were frequently finished with a slab of choice marble at the top.

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Galvanization

2008-11-13T18:38:00.000-08:00

Galvanization or galvanisation refers to any of several electrochemical processes named after the Italian scientist Luigi Galvani.
The first commercial use of galvanised sheet metal was for the Baldwin Brother's Gleaner combine harvester.

Originally, galvanization was the administration of electric shocks (in the 19th century also termed Faradism, after Michael Faraday). It stemmed from Galvani's induction of twitches in severed frogs' legs, by his accidental generation of electricity. This archaic sense is the origin of the meaning of galvanic when meaning "affected/affecting, as if by a shock of electricity; startled".[1] Its claims to health benefits have largely been disproven, except for some limited uses in psychiatry in the form of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Later the word was used for processes of electrodeposition. This remains a useful and broadly applied technology, but the term "galvanization" has largely come to be associated with zinc coatings, to the exclusion of other metals.

In current use, it typically means hot-dip galvanizing, a metallurgical process that is used to coat steel or iron with zinc. This is done to prevent galvanic corrosion (specifically rusting) of the ferrous item; while it is accomplished by non-electrochemical means, it serves an electrochemical purpose.

Hot-dip galvanized steel has been effectively used for more than 150 years. The value of hot-dip galvanizing stems from the relative corrosion resistance of zinc, which, under most service conditions, is considerably better than iron and steel. In addition to forming a physical barrier against corrosion, zinc, applied as a hot-dip galvanized coating, cathodically protects exposed steel. Furthermore, galvanizing for protection of iron and steel is favored because of its low cost, the ease of application, and the extended maintenance-free service that it provides.

Although galvanizing will inhibit attack of the underlying steel, rusting will be inevitable, especially if the local rainfall is at all acidic in nature. So for example, corrugated iron sheet roofing will start to degrade within a few years despite the protective action of the zinc coating. Marine environments also lower the lifetime of galvanized iron roofs and similar products, because the high electrical conductivity of sea water encourages and increases the rate of corrosion. Corrugated steel roofs can last for many years if further protected by a paint layer. Galvanized car frames may also be at risk, especially where road salting is used extensively.

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Catalyst switch

2008-11-13T18:33:00.000-08:00

Catalyst is the brand name for a variety of network switches sold by Cisco Systems. While commonly associated with Ethernet switches, a number of different interfaces have been available throughout the history of the brand. Cisco acquired several different companies and rebranded their products as different versions of the Catalyst product line. The original Catalyst 5000 and 6000 series were based on products originally developed by Crescendo Communications. The 1700, 1900, and 2800 -series Catalysts came from Grand Junction Networks, and the Catalyst 3000 came from Kalpana in 1994. [1]

In addition, Cisco increasingly offers routers with switching capabilities, and indeed Cisco's 7600 router line and 6500 switch line have interchangeable parts. Even Cisco's smaller routers, including their newest "ISR" series, can have switch modules installed in them - basically making Cisco's smaller switches fully integrated devices.

In most cases, the technology for the Catalyst Switch was developed separately from Cisco's router technology. The Catalyst switches traditionally ran software called CatOS rather than the more widely known Cisco IOS software used by routers. However, this has changed as the product lines have merged closer together. In some cases, particularly in the modular chassis switches, a configuration called 'Hybrid' has emerged - this is where the layer 2 functions are configured using CatOS, and the layer 3 elements are configured using IOS. 'Native IOS' can also be found with newer software versions that have eliminated CatOS entirely in favor of IOS, even on hardware that originally required CatOS.

The latest version of IOS for the Catalyst 6500 series is 12.2(18)SXF5 which enables ISSU via IOS Software Modularity.

Some newer Catalyst switch models (with recent versions of the Cisco IOS) also allow configuration via web-based graphical interface module which is hosted on a HTTP server located on the switch. The IOS config-mode command 'ip http-server' will enable this style of configuration. In series 12.x IOS, 'ip http-server' is always on as a factory default. The Catalyst 3750-series of switches is an example of a Cisco Catalyst switch that allows this style of GUI configuration via HTTP.

Some newer models of Catalyst switches (called Catalyst Express) no longer allow access to IOS or CatOS at all - these switches can only be configured by using a Graphical User Interface (GUI).

Most models have basic layer 2 functions and are capable of switching Ethernet frames between ports. Commonly found additional features are VLANs, trunking (Cisco proprietary ISL or IEEE 802.1Q) and QoS or CoS. The switches, whether IOS or CatOS, are fully manageable.

Many Catalysts that run IOS are also capable of functioning as a router, making them layer 3 devices; when coupled with TCP and UDP filtering, these switches are capable of layer 2-4 operation. Depending on the exact software image, a Catalyst that runs IOS may be able to tackle large-scale enterprise routing tasks, using router technologies like OSPF or BGP.

Most chassis-based Catalyst models have the concept of field-replaceable "supervisor" cards. These work by separating the line cards, chassis, and processing engine (mirroring most Cisco router designs). The chassis provides power and a high-speed backplane, the line cards provide interfaces to the outside world, and the processing engine moves packets, participates in routing protocols, etc. This gives several advantages:

If a failure occurs, only the failed component needs to be replaced (typically a line card or supervisor). This means faster turnaround than having to uncable, unbolt, pull out, replace, re-bolt, and re-cable an entire switch, which may be as large as a quarter-rack, weigh over 150 pounds, and service over 500 cables.
A redundant supervisor engine may be installed to rapidly recover from supervisor failures. This is subject to restrictions (as some switches don't support redundant supervisors), but typically results in restoration times under 90 seconds.
A supervisor engine may be upgraded after purchase, increasing performance and adding features without losing any investment in the rest of the switch.
Additionally, most high-end switches off-load processing away from the supervisors, allowing line cards to switch traffic directly between ports on the same card without using any processing power or even touching the backplane. Naturally, this can't be done for all traffic, but basic layer-2 switching can usually be handled exclusively by the line card, and in many cases also more complex operations can be handled as well.

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Hermès handbags

2008-11-13T18:28:00.000-08:00

Hermès handbags have been noted for being one of the few brands of handbag to either hold or increase in value with time,[citation needed] giving them the distinction of being considered by some as "investment quality" products. Author Michael Tonello in his book, Bringing Home The Birkin, published by William Morrow in 2008, shares his experiences buying and selling the Birkin Bag on eBay. He recounts how he acquired Birkin Bags in Spain and France and became a powerhouse eBay seller until Hermes refused to sell him anymore Birkins. The book provides an insiders peek at the mystique of this exclusive accessory.

Hermès Birkin handbags are hand-built by experienced craftsmen, one of the primary factors contributing to the high price of all Hermès handbags. The production of each bag may take up to 48 work hours, translating into weeks. They are distributed worldwide to Hermès boutiques on intentionally unpredictable schedules and in even fewer reliable quantities, creating a sense of scarcity and exclusivity around the product.

The exterior of the bag can be made of a variety of leathers. One of the most expensive variations of the bag is made of saltwater crocodile skin. The price of these bags depends on the size of the scales. Bags with smaller scales cost much more than those with larger scales.

Typically, a Birkin bag's lining is made of goat skin and its color will match the bag's exterior color. The bags can also be special-ordered from custom leathers and colors, but order privileges are granted only to certain established Hermès clients, and again, on an unpredictable basis. Orders are reportedly submitted to Paris twice a year, with "special-order" bags coming back anywhere from a year to 2 years later. Occasionally, special orders may never arrive, as Hermès is notorious for discontinuing certain leathers or colors without notice, frequently making the arrival and "pick-up" of a special order Birkin a cause for some fun fanfare both for the client, and occasionally even for boutique staff.

The metallic hardware on a Birkin bag (the lock, keys, buckle hardware and feet studs) are typically plated with gold or other precious metals, such as palladium, which, unlike silver, will not tarnish. The metal lock may be covered with leather as an option when custom ordering. Certain notable Hermès clients have paved buckle hardware with diamonds, notoriously resulting in one black crocodile skin Birkin which notably sold for close to $65,000 at auction in 2005. [3]

Birkin lock keys are enclosed in a type of leather lanyard known as a "clochette" which is typically, but not necessarily, carried by looping it through one of a Birkin's handles. The Birkin bag may be locked by closing the bag's top flaps over all buckle loops, wrapping the buckle straps, and closing the lock on the front hardware.

Locks and keys are number-coded.

Because of the high profile of the Hermès brand and the high prices attached to their products, there is a significant amount of counterfeit Hermès merchandise produced and sold, some of which ends up on online retail and auction websites such as eBay.

Authenticity can sometimes be determined by the presence of these characteristics:

Appropriate pricing - a Birkin in any vendable condition will never sell for less than 50% of its original value.
Even stitching
Gilt or blind stamped in the front face under the tap: "Hermès Paris, Made in France"
Craftsman's marks and letter year of manufacture stamped in a square underside of right belt. The year of manufacture should be consistent with condition and history of bag
Interior leather zipper tag parallel with zipper hardware, not perpendicular
Feel of superior leather. The touch and weight of fine leather are not easily duplicated.

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Tray

2008-11-12T06:56:00.000-08:00

A tray is a shallow platform designed for carrying things. It is larger than a salver, a diminutive version commonly used for lighter and smaller servings, and it can be fashioned from numerous materials, including silver, brass, sheet iron, wood, melamine, and papier-mâché. Some examples have raised galleries, handles, and short feet for support.

Trays are flat, but with raised edges to stop things from sliding off of them. They are made in a range of shapes but are commonly found in oval or rectangular forms, sometimes with cutout or attached handles with which to carry them.

Famous Russian Zhostovo Tray.A butler's tray often has a gallery, or deeper surround, handles on the short sides to facilitate carrying (usually cut into the surround), and a portable stand with folding legs. It is used for the service of drinks and generally serves as a convenient side table.
A cafeteria tray is used for carrying items in a cafeteria. It is typically made of plastic or fiberglass. A compartment tray or mess tray is a cafeteria tray designed to be used directly, without dishes - it incorporates shallow compartments in which different types of food are placed.
Surgical trays, used to carry surgical instruments, are rectangular and made of stainless steel to resist the heat of sterilization without corrosion.

A seed tray used in horticulture (for sowing and taking plant cuttings)In horticulture, seed trays are used for propagating vegetables and flowers and other plants from seed. [1] They are also used for taking plant cuttings. The trays for seedling production are made of expanded polystyrene or polythene. They come in many sizes; the most common are the Danish and the European sized trays.

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Sunglasses

2008-11-12T06:51:00.000-08:00

Sunglasses may be made with either prescription or non-prescription lenses that are darkened to provide protection against bright visible and possibly ultraviolet light.

Glasses with photosensitive lenses, called photochromic lenses, become darker in the presence of UV light. Unfortunately, many car windshields block the passage of UV light, making photochromic lenses less effective whilst driving on bright days. Still, they offer the convenience of not having to carry both clear glasses and sunglasses to those who frequently go indoors and outdoors during the course of a day. Recent technology has developed specialized photochromic lenses that work behind the windshield of the car, as well as outside of the car.

Light polarization is an added feature that can be applied to sunglass lenses. Polarization filters remove horizontally polarized rays of light, which can cause glare. Popular among fishermen and hunters, polarized sunglasses allow wearers to see into water when normally glare or reflected light would be seen. Polarized sunglasses may present some difficulties for pilots since reflections from water and other structures often used to gauge altitude may be removed, or instrument readings on liquid crystal displays may be blocked.

Yellow lenses are commonly used by golfers and shooters for their contrast enhancement and depth perception properties. Brown lenses are also common among golfers, but cause color distortion. Blue, purple, and green lenses offer no real benefits to vision enhancement and are mainly cosmetic. Some sunglasses with interchangeable lenses have optional clear lenses to protect the eyes during low light or night time activities and a colored lens with UV protection for times where sun protection is needed. Debate exists as to whether "blue blocking" or amber tinted lenses have a protective effect.

Sunglasses are often worn just for aesthetic purposes, or simply to hide the eyes. Examples of sunglasses that were popular for these reasons include teashades and mirrorshades.

The illusion of three dimensions on a two dimensional surface can be created by providing each eye with different visual information. Classic 3D glasses create the illusion of three dimensions when viewing specially prepared images. The classic 3D glasses have one red lens and one blue lens. 3D glasses made of cardboard and plastic are distributed at 3D movies. Another kind of 3D glasses uses polarized filters, with one lens polarized vertically and the other horizontally, with the two images required for stereo vision polarized the same way. Polarized 3D glasses allow for color 3D, while the red-blue lenses produce a dull black-and-white picture with red and blue fringes.

One kind of electronic 3D spectacles uses electronic shutters, while virtual reality glasses and helmets have separate video screens for each eye.

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Types of Glasses

2008-11-12T06:46:00.000-08:00

Corrective lenses modify the focal length of the eye to alleviate the effects of nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia) or astigmatism. As people age, the eye's crystalline lens loses elasticity, resulting in presbyopia, which limits their ability to change focus.

The power of a lens is generally measured in diopters. Over-the-counter reading glasses are typically rated at +1.00 to +4.00 diopters. Glasses correcting for myopia will have negative diopter strengths. Lenses made to conform to the prescription of an ophthalmologist or optometrist are called prescription lenses and are used to make prescription glasses, which are then verified correct using a professional lensmeter.

Safety glasses are usually made with shatter-resistant plastic lenses to protect the eye from flying debris. Although safety lenses may be constructed from a variety of materials of various impact resistance, certain standards suggest that they maintain a minimum 1 millimeter thickness at the thinnest point, regardless of material. Safety glasses can vary in the level of protection they provide. For example, those used in medicine may be expected to protect against blood splatter while safety glasses in a factory might have stronger lenses and a stronger frame with additional shields at the temples. The lenses of safety glasses can also be shaped for correction.

Safety glasses with side shieldsThe American National Standards Institute has established standard ANSI Z87.1 for safety glasses in the United States, and similar standards have been established elsewhere.

OSHA provides guidance on the type of safety eyewear that should be used for a particular application.

Some safety glasses are designed to fit over corrective glasses or sunglasses. They may provide less eye protection than goggles or other forms of eye protection, but their light weight increases the likelihood that they will actually be used. Modern safety glasses tend to be given a more stylish design in order to encourage their use. Corrective glasses with plastic lenses can be used in the place of safety glasses in many environments; this is one advantage that they have over contact lenses.

There are also safety glasses for welding, which are styled like wraparound sunglasses, but with much darker lenses, for use in welding where a full sized welding helmet is inconvenient or uncomfortable. These are often called "flash goggles", because they provide protection from welding flash.

Worker safety eyewear is available in various lens colors and/or with coatings to protect or enable eyesight in different lighting conditions, particularly when outdoors.

Nylon frames are usually used for protection eyewear for sports because of their lightweight and flexible properties. They are able to bend slightly and return to their original shape instead of breaking when pressure is applied to them. Nylon frames can become very brittle with age and they can be difficult to adjust.

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History of Glasses

2008-11-12T06:41:00.000-08:00

The earliest historical reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, which depict "simple glass meniscal lenses". The earliest written record of magnification dates back to the 1st century AD, when Seneca the Younger, a tutor of Emperor Nero, wrote: "Letters, however small and indistinct, are seen enlarged and more clearly through a globe of glass filled with water".[3] Emperor Nero is also said to have watched the gladiatorial games using an emerald as a corrective lens.[4]

Corrective lenses were said to be used by Abbas Ibn Firnas in the 9th century,[5] who had devised a way to produce very clear glass. These glasses could be shaped and polished into round rocks used for viewing and were known as reading stones. The earliest evidence of "a magnifying device, a convex lens forming a magnified image," dates back the Book of Optics published by Alhazen in 1021. Its translation into Latin in the 12th century was instrumental to the invention of eyeglasses in 13th century Italy.[3]

Sunglasses, in the form of flat panes of smoky quartz, protected the eyes from glare and were used in China in the 12th century or possibly earlier. However, they did not offer any corrective powers.
Around 1284 in Italy, Salvino D'Armate is credited with inventing the first wearable eye glasses.[7] The earliest pictorial evidence for the use of eyeglasses, however, is Tomaso da Modena's 1352 portrait of the cardinal Hugh de Provence reading in a scriptorium. Another early example would be a depiction of eyeglasses found north of the Alpes in an altarpiece of the church of Bad Wildungen, Germany, in 1403.

Many theories abound for who should be credited for the invention of traditional eyeglasses. In 1676, Francesco Redi, a professor of medicine at the University of Pisa, wrote that he possessed a 1289 manuscript whose author complains that he would be unable to read or write were it not for the recent invention of glasses. He also produced a record of a sermon given in 1305, in which the speaker, a Dominican monk named Fra Giordano da Rivalto, remarked that glasses had been invented less than twenty years previously, and that he had met the inventor. Based on this evidence, Redi credited another Dominican monk, Fra Alessandro da Spina of Pisa, with the re-invention of glasses after their original inventor kept them a secret, a claim contained in da Spina's obituary record.[8]

Seated apostle holding lenses in position for reading. Detail from Death of the Virgin, by the Master of Heiligenkreuz, ca. 1400-30 (Getty Center).Other stories, possibly legendary, credit Roger Bacon with the invention. Bacon is known to have made one of the first recorded references to the magnifying properties of lenses in 1262,[9] though this was predated by Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021.[3] Bacon's treatise De iride ("On the Rainbow"), which was written while he was a student of Robert Grosseteste, no later than 1235, mentions using optics to "read the smallest letters at incredible distances". While the exact date and inventor may be forever disputed, it is almost certainly clear that spectacles were invented between 1280 and 1300 in Italy.[1]

These early spectacles had convex lenses that could correct both hyperopia (farsightedness), and the presbyopia that commonly develops as a symptom of aging. Nicholas of Cusa is believed to have discovered the benefits of concave lens in the treatment of myopia (nearsightedness). However, it was not until 1604 that Johannes Kepler published in his treatise on optics and astronomy, the first correct explanation as to why convex and concave lenses could correct presbyopia and myopia.

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Glasses

2008-11-12T06:35:00.000-08:00

Glasses, also called eyeglasses or spectacles, are frames bearing lenses worn in front of the eyes, normally for vision correction, eye protection, or for protection from UV rays.

Modern glasses are typically supported by pads on the bridge of the nose and by temples placed over the ears. Historical types include the pince-nez, monocle, and lorgnette.

Eyeglass frames are commonly made from metal or plastic. Lenses were originally made from glass, but many are now made from various types of metal plastic, including CR-39 and polycarbonate. These materials reduce the danger of breakage and weigh less than glass lenses. Some plastics also have more advantageous optical properties than glass, such as better transmission of visible light and greater absorption of ultraviolet light.[1] Some plastics have a greater index of refraction than most types of glass; this is useful in the making of corrective lenses shaped to correct various vision abnormalities such as myopia, allowing thinner lenses for a given prescription. Newer plastic lenses, called izon, can also correct for the higher order aberrations that naturally occur in the surface of our eye. These lenses create sharper vision and help with the halos, starbursts, and comet-tails often associated with night time driving glare. Wavefront guided LASIK surgery also corrects for the higher order aberrations.

French Empire gilt scissors glasses c.1805Scratch-resistant coatings can be applied to most plastic lenses giving them similar scratch resistance to glass. Hydrophobic coatings designed to ease cleaning are also available, as are anti-reflective coatings intended to reduce glare, improve night vision and make the wearer's eyes more visible.[2]

CR-39 lenses are the most common plastic lenses due to their low weight, high scratch resistance, and low transparency for ultra violet and infrared radiation. Polycarbonate and Trivex lenses are the lightest and most shatter-resistant, making them the best for impact protection,[1] yet offer poor optics due to high dispersion, and having a low Abbe number of 31.

Not all glasses are designed solely for vision correction but are worn for protection, viewing visual information (such as stereoscopy) or simply just for aesthetic or fashion values. Safety glasses are a kind of eye protection against flying debris or against visible and near visible light or radiation. Sunglasses allow better vision in bright daylight, and may protect against damage from high levels of ultraviolet light.

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Hazard Warning Tape

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Portable Folding Stool

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nylon insert nuts

aluminium tread plate

Clear PVC Hose

Neutral density filters

2008-11-10T05:17:00.000-08:00

Neutral density (ND) filters come in two types: absorptive and reflective. Absorptive filters (for example made of Schott 1234 glass) are for lower-power applications that involve up to about 100 mW average power. Above those power levels, one risks melting the filter. Absorptive filter attenuation values are valid for the visible spectrum (500–700 nm) and are not valid outside of that spectral region. Typically, one can expect about 10% variation of the attenuation across a 2-inch (51 mm) ND filter. The attenuation values of ND filters are specified logarithmically. A ND 3 filter transmits 10-3 of the incident beam power. Placing the largest attenuator last before the CCD sensor will result in the best rejection of ghost images due to multiple reflections. Reflective filters are made with a thin metallic coating and hence operate over a larger bandwidth. An ND 3 metallic filter will be good over 200–2000 nm. The attenuation will rapidly increase outside this spectral region. These filters reflect rather than absorb the incident power, and hence can handle higher input powers. These filters work fine to about 5 W average power (over about 1 cm2 illumination area) before heating causes them to crack. Since these filters reflect light, one must be careful when stacking multiple ND filters, since multiple reflections among the filters will cause a ghost image to interfere with the original beam profile. One way to mitigate this problem is by tilting the ND filter stack. Assuming that the absorption of the metallic ND filter is negligible, the order of the ND filter stack doesn’t matter, as it does for the absorptive filters.

Optical wedges and reflections from uncoated optical glass surfaces are used to attenuate high power laser beams. About 4% is reflected from the air/glass interface and several wedges can be used to greatly attenuate the beam to levels that can be attenuated with ND filters. The angle of the wedge is typically selected so that the second reflection from the surface does not hit the active area of the CCD. The farther the CCD is from the wedge, the smaller the angle required. Wedges have the disadvantage of both translating and bending the beam direction — paths will no longer lie on convenient rectangular coordinates. Rather than using a wedge, an optical-quality thick glass plate tilted to the beam can also work — actually, this is the same as a wedge with a 0° angle. The thick glass will translate the beam but it will not change the angle of the output beam. The glass must be thick enough so that the secondary reflection does not illuminate the active area of the CCD. The Fresnel reflection of a beam from a glass plate is different for the s- and p-polarizations (s is parallel to the surface of the glass, and p is perpendicular to s) and changes as a function of angle of incidence – keep this in mind if you expect that the two polarizations have different beam profiles. To prevent distortion of the beam profile, the glass should be of optical quality — surface flatness of λ/10 (λ=633 nm) and scratch-dig of 40-20 or better. A half-wave plate followed by a polarizing beam splitter form a variable attenuator and this combination is often used in optical systems. The variable attenuator made in this fashion is not recommended for attenuation for beam profiling applications because: (1) the beam profile in the two orthogonal polarizations may be different, and (2) the polarization beam cube may have a low optical damage threshold value. Inexpensive cube polarizers are formed by cementing two right angle prisms together. The glue does not stand up well to high powers — the intensity should be kept under 500 mW/mm2. Single-element polarizers are recommended for high powers.

There are two competing requirements that determine the optimal beam size on the CCD detector. One requirement is that the entire energy — or as much of it as possible — of the laser beam is incident on the CCD sensor. This would imply that we should focus all the energy in the center of the active region in as small a spot as possible using only a few of the central pixels to ensure that the tails of the beam are captured by the outer pixels. This is one extreme. The second requirement is that we need to adequately sample the beam profile shape. As a general rule of thumb, we want at least 10 pixels across the area that encompasses most, say 80%, of the energy in the beam. Therefore, there is no hard and fast rule to select the optimal beam size. As long as the CCD sensor captures over 90% of the beam energy and has at least 10 pixels across it, the beam width measurements will have some accuracy.

The larger the CCD sensor, the larger the size of beam that can be profiled. Sometimes this comes at the cost of larger pixel sizes. Small pixels sizes are desired for observing focused beams. A CCD with many megapixels is not always better than a smaller array since readout times on the computer can be uncomfortably long. Reading out the array in real-time is essential for any tweaking or optimization of the laser profile.

A far-field beam profiler is nothing more than profiling the beam at the focus of a lens. This plane is sometimes called the Fourier plane and is the profile that one would see if the beam propagated very far away. The beam at the Fourier plane is the Fourier transform of the input field. Care must be taken in setting up a far-field measurement. The focused spot size must be large enough to span across several pixels. The spot size is approximately fλ/D, where f is the focal length of the lens, λ is the wavelength of the light, and D is the diameter of the collimated beam incident upon the lens. For example, a helium-neon laser (633 nm) with 1 mm beam diameter would focus to a 317 μm spot with a 500 mm lens. A laser beam profiler with a 5.6 μm pixel size would adequately sample the spot at 56 locations.

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RCA Female Connector

Techniques

2008-11-10T05:12:00.000-08:00

Two techniques for beam profiling are described in this section: the knife-edge technique and the CCD camera technique.
The knife-edge slit technique is a method of quantifying the width of a laser beam. The technique involves chopping the beam with a knife and measuring the transmitted power as the blade cuts through the beam. The measured intensity versus knife position yields a curve that is the integrated beam intensity in one direction. By measuring the intensity curve for several directions, the original beam profile can be reconstructed – but not in real time – using algorithms developed for x-ray tomography. Instead of a knife, sometimes a scanning slit is used. In this case, the intensity is integrated over the slit width. The resulting measurement is equivalent to the original cross section convolved with the profile of the slit. The advantages of the knife-edge technique are that it can measure very small spot sizes down to 1 μm, and can be used for high power lasers. The disadvantages are that the knife-edge technique does not offer real-time readout, measures the integrated intensities in the x and y directions and not the actual 2D spatial profile (integrating intensities can be hard to interpret for complicated beam profiles), and does not work for pulsed laser sources. Knife-edge beam profiling instruments often only work for continuous wave lasers because of the extra complexity of synchronizing the rotating knife-edge and the laser pulses.

The CCD camera technique is simple: attenuate and shine a laser onto a CCD and measure the beam profile directly. It is for this reason that the camera technique is the most popular method for laser beam profiling. The most popular cameras used are silicon CCDs that have sensor diameters that range up to 25 mm (1 inch) and pixel sizes down to a few micrometres. These cameras are also sensitive to a broad range of wavelengths, from deep UV, 200 nm, to near infrared, 1100 nm; this range of wavelengths encompass a broad range of laser gain media. The advantages of the CCD camera technique are:

It captures the 2D beam profile in real-time
Software typically displays critical beam metrics, such as D4σ width, in real-time
Sensitive CCD detectors can capture the beam profiles of weak lasers
Resolution down to about 5 μm
CCD cameras with trigger inputs can be used to capture beam profiles of low-duty-cycle pulsed lasers
CCD’s have broad wavelength sensitivities from 200 to 1100 nm
The disadvantages of the CCD camera technique are that attenuation is required for high power lasers, and CCD sensor size limited to about 1 inch.

The D4σ width is sensitive to the beam energy or noise in the tail of the pulse because the pixels that are far from the beam centroid contribute to the D4σ width as the distance squared. To reduce the error in the D4σ width estimate, the baseline pixel values are subtracted from the measured signal. The baseline values for the pixels are measured by recording the values of the CCD pixels with no incident light. The finite value is due to dark current, readout noise, and other noise sources. For shot-noise-limited noise sources, baseline subtraction improves the D4σ width estimate as , where N is the number of pixels in the wings. Without baseline subtraction, the D4σ width is overestimated.

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Laser beam profiler

2008-11-10T05:03:00.000-08:00

A laser beam profiler captures, displays, and records the spatial intensity profile of a laser beam at a particular plane transverse to the beam propagation path. Since there are many types of lasers — ultraviolet, visible, infrared, continuous wave, pulsed, high-power, low-power — there is an assortment of instrumentation for measuring laser beam profiles. No single laser beam profiler can handle every power level, pulse duration, repetition rate, wavelength, and beam size.

Laser beam profiling instruments measure the following quantities:

Beam width: There are over five definitions of beam width.
Beam quality: Quantified by the beam quality parameter, M2.
Beam divergence: This is a measure of the spreading of the beam with distance.
Beam profile: A beam profile is the 2D intensity plot of a beam at a given location along the beam path. A Gaussian or flat-top profile is often desired. The beam profile indicates nuisance high-order spatial modes in a laser cavity as well as hot spots in the beam.
Beam astigmatism: The beam is astigmatic when the vertical and horizontal parts of the beam focus in different locations along the beam path.
Beam wander or jitter: The amount that the centroid or peak value of the beam profile moves with time.
Instruments and techniques were developed to obtain the beam characteristics listed above. These include:

Camera techniques: These include the direct illumination of a camera sensor. The maximum spot size that will fit onto a CCD sensor is on the order of 10 mm. Alternatively, illuminating a flat diffuse surface with the laser and imaging the light onto a CCD with a lens allows profiling of larger-diameter beams. Viewing lasers off diffuse surfaces is excellent for large beam widths but requires a diffuse surface that has uniform reflectivity (<1%>BAMBOO KNIFE BLOCK

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Fiber cement siding

2008-11-10T04:58:00.000-08:00

Fiber cement siding (or "fibre cement cladding" in the UK and Australasia) is a building material used to cover the exterior of a building in both commercial and domestic applications.

Fibre cement is a composite material made of sand, cement and cellulose fibers. In appearance fibre cement cladding most often consists of overlapping horizontal boards, imitating wooden cladding, clapboard and imitation shingles. Fiber cement siding is also manufactured in a sheet form and is used not only as cladding but is also commonly used as a soffit / eave lining and as a tile underlay on decks and in bathrooms.

CSR Fiber Cement sheet cladding - dwelling addition, Hardys Bay, NSW, Australia (Article)Fiber cement cladding is not only used as an exterior cladding, it can also be utilised as a substitute for timber fascias and barge boards in high fire areas.

Fibre cement sheeting products are manufactured in Australia by CSR, BGC and James Hardie in accordance with Australian Standard 2908.2000, "Cellulose Cement Products". Fiber cement siding and sheeting is produced in the United States by CertainTeed Corporation. In Europe, these products are manufactured and marketed by Eternit.

Sheet sizes vary slightly from manufacture to manufacture but generally they range between 2400 – 3000 mm in length and 900 –1200mm in width (600 & 450 mm increments). This manufactured size minimises on-site wastage as residential floor, wall and roof structures lay structural members at 450 or 600 centres.

Fibre cement thicknesses vary between 4.5-18mm and also vary in density – the lower density resulting in a fibrous rough edge when cut and the higher density having a cleaner smoother edge when cut.

Thermal resistance and sound transmission vary greatly between fiber cement products. Fiber cement sheet products rate poorly in thermal resistance and sound transmission and separate wall insulation is highly recommended. Generally the thicker and denser the product the better resistance it will have to temperature and sound transmission.

Fibre cement cladding is a very heavy product and requires 2 men to carry the uncut sheets. Thin fibre cement cladding is fragile before installation and must be handled carefully; it is prone to chipping and breakage if improperly handled.

Once the product is cut it may again require 2 men to install – one to hold the sheet flush against studwork and the other to nail the product in place.

Cutting fibre cement cladding sheeting usually requires a mechanised saw or metal hand shears and sheets can be cut to size in three ways:

Thinner sheets can be scored with a heavy duty cutting blade and snapped
Purpose made "fibro cutter" (an Australian term)
Thicker and denser sheets require cutting by a mechanical saw
Some caution must be exercised to properly ventilate areas where FCS is being cut; long-term exposure to the silica dust generated during the installation process can cause silicosis.

Fibre cement cladding can be painted before or after installation. (For areas of exposure, weatherproof paint must be used.) Once the product is fixed the joints are usually covered with timber battens and the entire wall surface is painted.

Manufacturers of trim accessories for fibercement products include: Tamlyn http://www.tamlyn.com/ and Dunlap Supply Co. of Tomball, Texas

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Coffee table

2008-11-10T04:52:00.000-08:00

A coffee table, also called a cocktail table, is a style of long, low table which is designed to be placed in front of a couch, to support beverages (hence the name), magazines, books (especially coffee table books), and other small items to be used while sitting, such as coasters. Coffee tables are usually found in the living room or sitting room. They are available in many different variations and prices vary from style to style. Coffee tables may also incorporate cabinets for storage.

The idiom "Gather round the coffee table" is derived from the furniture piece and its proclivity for encouraging conviviality and light conversation.

The first tables, in Europe, specifically designed as and called coffee tables, appear to have been made in Britain during the late Victorian era.

Prior to the late 18th century, the tables used in Europe in conjunction with a settle included occasional tables, end tables, centre tables, and tea tables. By 1780, the high backed settle was being replaced by low back sofas and this led to the development of sofa tables which stood against the back of the sofa and could be used by anyone sitting on the sofa to put down a book or a cup.

According to the listing in Victorian Furniture by R. W. Symonds & B. B. Whineray and also in The Country Life Book of English Furniture by Edward T. Joy, a table designed by E. W. Godwin in 1868 and made in large numbers by William Watt, and Collinson and Lock, is a coffee table. If this is correct it may be one of the earliest made in Europe. Other sources, however, list it only as 'table' so this cannot be stated categorically. Far from being a low table, this table was about twenty-seven inches high.

Later coffee tables were designed as low tables and this idea may have been introduced from the Ottoman Empire, based on the tables in use in tea gardens. However, as the Anglo-Japanese style was popular in Britain throughout the 1870s and 1880s and low tables were common in Japan, this would seem to be an equally likely source for the concept of a long low table.

From the late 19th century onwards, many coffee tables were subsequently made in earlier styles due to the popularity of revivalism, so it is quite possible to find Louis XVI style coffee tables or Georgian style coffee tables, but there seems to be no evidence of a table actually made as a coffee table before this time. Joseph Aronson writing in 1938 defines a coffee table as a, "Low wide table now used before a sofa or couch. There is no historical precedent...," suggesting that coffee tables were a late development in the history of furniture.

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Grader

2008-11-10T04:49:00.000-08:00

A grader, also commonly referred to as a road grader, a blade, a maintainer or a motor grader, is an engineering vehicle with a large blade used to create a flat surface. Typical models have three axles, with the engine and cab situated above the rear axles at one end of the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade in between.

In civil engineering, the grader's purpose is to "finish grade" (refine, set precisely) the "rough grading" performed by heavy equipment or engineering vehicles such as scrapers and bulldozers.

Graders can produce inclined surfaces and surfaces with cambered cross-sections for roads. In some countries they are used to produce drainage ditches with shallow V-shaped cross-sections on either side of highways.

Graders are commonly used in the construction and maintenance of dirt roads and gravel roads. In the construction of paved roads they are used to prepare the base course to create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on. Graders are also used to set native soil foundation pads to finish grade prior to the construction of large buildings.

In some locales such as Canada and places in the United States, graders are often used in municipal and residential snow removal. In scrubland and grassland areas of Australia and Africa, graders are often an essential piece of equipment on ranches, large farms and plantations to make dirt tracks where the absence of rocks and trees means bulldozers are not required. A more recent innovation is the outfitting of graders with GPS technology, such as manufactured by Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc., Trimble Navigation, or Mikrofyn [www.mikrofyn.com] for precise grade control and (potentially) "stakeless" construction.

Capacities range from a blade width of 2.50 to 7.30 m and engines from 93–373 kW (125–500 hp).

The National Association of Heavy Equipment Training Schools (NAHETS), established 2002, uses grader training schools and curriculum as a method to test and train users in the ability of grader use.

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Welding

2008-11-09T05:48:00.000-08:00

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld puddle) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the workpieces.
Arc weldingMany different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, underwater and in outer space. Regardless of location, however, welding remains dangerous, and precautions must be taken to avoid burns, electric shock, eye damage, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to ultraviolet light.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join metals by heating and pounding them. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as World War I and World War II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding. Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding and electron beam welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is becoming more commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality and properties.

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia, with the earliest examples of welding from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in Europe and the Middle East. Welding was used in the construction of the Iron pillar in Delhi, India, erected about 310 and weighing 5.4 metric tons.[1] The Middle Ages brought advances in forge welding, in which blacksmiths pounded heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, Vannoccio Biringuccio published De la pirotechnia, which includes descriptions of the forging operation. Renaissance craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following centuries.[2] Welding, however, was transformed during the 19th century—in 1800, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the electric arc, and advances in arc welding continued with the inventions of metal electrodes by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov, and an American, C. L. Coffin in the late 1800s, even as carbon arc welding, which used a carbon electrode, gained popularity. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in Britain, which gave a more stable arc, and in 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C. J. Holslag, but did not become popular for another decade.[3]

Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with the first patents going to Elihu Thomson in 1885, who produced further advances over the next 15 years. Thermite welding was invented in 1893, and around that time, another process, oxyfuel welding, became well established. Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, but its use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a suitable blowtorch was developed.[4] At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding methods due to its portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favor for industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode that stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities continued to be developed.[5]

World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding processes, with the various military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the Fulagar, with an entirely welded hull. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process.[6] Also noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in the world, designed by Stefan Bryła of the Warsaw University of Technology in 1927, and built across the river Słudwia Maurzyce near Łowicz, Poland in 1929.[7]

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed continuously. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres.[8] During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals like aluminum and magnesium. This, in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.[9]

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. 1930 saw the release of stud welding, which soon became popular in shipbuilding and construction. Submerged arc welding was invented the same year, and continues to be popular today. Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was developed during the 1950s, using a flux coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag welding was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961.[10]

Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron beam welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat source. Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding debuted several decades later, and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. Both of these processes, however, continue to be quite expensive due the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their applications.

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Lay of wire rope

2008-11-09T05:45:00.000-08:00

The lay of a wire rope describes the manner in which either the wires in a strand, or the strands in the rope, are laid in a helix.
Left hand lay or right hand lay describe the manner in which the strands are laid to form the rope. To determine the lay of strands in the rope, a viewer looks at the rope as it points away from them. If the strands appear to turn in a clockwise direction, or like a right-hand thread, as the strands progress away from the viewer, the rope has a right hand lay. The picture of steel wire rope on this page shows a rope with right hand lay. If the strands appear to turn in an anti-clockwise direction, or like a left-hand thread, as the strands progress away from the viewer, the rope has a left hand lay.

Ordinary and Lang's lay describe the manner in which the wires are laid to form a strand of the wire rope. To determine which has been used first identify if left or right hand lay has been used to make the rope. Then identify if a right or left hand lay has been used to twist the wires in each strand.

The specification of a wire rope type – including the number of wires per strand, the number of strands, and the lay of the rope – is documented using a commonly accepted coding system, consisting of a number of abbreviations.

This is easily demonstrated with a simple example. The rope shown in the figure "Wire rope construction" is designated thus: 6x19 FC RH OL FSWR

Each of the sections of the wire rope designation described above is variable. There are therefore a large number of combinations of wire rope that can be specified in this manner. The following abbreviations are commonly used to specify a wire rope.

The end of a wire rope tends to fray readily, and cannot be easily connected to plant and equipment. There are different ways of securing the ends of wire ropes to prevent fraying. The most common and useful type of end fitting for a wire rope is to turn the end back to form a loop. The loose end is then fixed back on the wire rope.

When the wire rope is terminated with a loop, there is a risk that it will bend too tightly, especially when the loop is connected to a device that spreads the load over a relatively small area. A thimble can be installed inside the loop to preserve the natural shape of the loop, and protect the cable from pinching and abrading on the inside of the loop. The use of thimbles in loops is industry best practice. The thimble prevents the load from coming into direct contact with the wires.

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Wire rope

2008-11-09T05:42:00.000-08:00

Wire rope consists of several strands laid (or 'twisted') together like a helix. Each strand is likewise made of metal wires laid together like a helix. Initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main material used for wire ropes.

Modern wire rope was invented by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal, Lower Saxony, Germany. It was quickly accepted because it proved superior to ropes made of hemp or to metal chains, such as had been used before.

Wilhelm Albert's first ropes consisted of wires twisted about a hemp rope core, six such strands then being twisted around another hemp rope core in alternating directions for extra stability. Earlier forms of wire rope had been made by covering a bundle of wires with hemp.

In America wire rope was later manufactured by John A. Roebling, forming the basis for his success in suspension bridge building. Roebling introduced a number of innovations in the design, materials and manufacture of wire rope.

Manufacturing a wire rope is similar to making one from natural fibres. The individual wires are first twisted into a strand, then six or so such strands again twisted around a core. This core may consist of steel, but also of natural fibres such as sisal, manila, henequen, jute, or hemp. This is used to cushion off stress forces when bending the rope.

This flexibility is particularly vital in ropes used in machinery such as cranes or elevators as well as ropes used in transportation modes such as cable cars, cable railways, funiculars and aerial lifts. It is not quite so essential in suspension bridges and similar uses.

Wire rope is often sold with vinyl and nylon coatings. This increases weather resistance and overall durability, however it can lead to weak joints if the coating is not removed correctly underneath joints and connections.

The following Australian Standards apply to wire rope:

AS 1138-1992 Thimbles for wire rope
AS 1394-2001 Round steel wire for ropes
AS 1666.1-1995 Wire-rope slings - Product specification
AS 1666.2-1995 Wire-rope slings - Care and use
AS 2076-1996 Wire-rope grips for non-lifting applications
AS 2759-2004 Steel wire rope - Use, operation and maintenance
AS 3569-1989 Steel wire ropes
AS/NZS 4812-2003 Non-destructive examination and discard criteria for wire ropes in mine winding systems

3 Tier Fountain

underwater metal detector

empty picnic basket

football shaped pillow

candle craft holder

Solar Camp Shower

bldc motor driver

Disposable Plastic Bowls

freezer chest refrigerator

authentic coach wallet

metal cutting bandsaw

high torque marine

mens gucci belt

crankshaft grinding machine

chrome bathroom shelves

foam rubber mattress

hair straightener iron

crocodile leather belt

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yellow shower curtain

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excavator spare parts

garden leaf rake

man leather briefcase

Peristaltic pump

2008-11-09T05:40:00.000-08:00

A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made). A rotor with a number of "rollers", "shoes" or "wipers" attached to the external circumference compresses the flexible tube. As the rotor turns, the part of tube under compression closes (or "occludes") thus forcing the fluid to be pumped to move through the tube. Additionally, as the tube opens to its natural state after the passing of the cam ("restitution") fluid flow is induced to the pump. This process is called peristalsis and used in many biological systems such as the gastrointestinal tract.

Peristaltic pumps are typically used to pump clean/sterile or aggressive fluids, because cross contamination cannot occur. Some common applications include pumping IV fluids through an infusion device, aggressive chemicals, high solids slurries and other materials where isolation of the product from the environment, and the environment from the product, are critical. The peristaltic pump is the standard method for introducing liquids into the nebulizer on an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) unit.

An unique approach to peristaltic hose pump design employs a single oversized roller on an eccentric shaft that compresses an engineered, low friction hose through 360 degrees of rotation. The benefits of this design include more flow per revolution and only one compression and expansion per cycle. At equal performance points this pump runs more slowly, with consequent longer hose lifetime, than pumps with multiple shoes or rollers.

Many older hose pumps use shoes to compress the hose. When the shoe slides over the outside of the hose, it creates friction and heat, and heat is an enemy of long hose life. A single roller pump uses a large diameter lubricated roller on an eccentric shaft that rolls over the hose. This means that it produces less friction, and therefore less heat, than a pump with shoes.

In addition to less heat, an eccentric shaft hose pump functions with only a single compression of the hose per revolution. For every one rotation, the pump has one compression of the hose, while pumps with multiple shoes or rollers have at least two compressions per revolution, and in some cases three or four. Since the hose is the heart of a peristaltic hose pump, and hose life is inversely proportional to the number of squeezes, this design will outperform a pump with shoes at the same speed.

The hose in this type of pump takes up the full 360 degrees of the pump housing. This is important, because at an equal size, this design will produce 55% more flow at the same speed. This means that one can get more flow at the same pump speed, or run the pump more slowly to generate the same flow.

Because the only part of the pump in contact with the fluid being pumped is the interior of the tube, it is easy to sterilize and clean the inside surfaces of the pump. Furthermore, since there are no moving parts in contact with the fluid, peristaltic pumps are inexpensive to manufacture. Their lack of valves, seals and glands makes them comparatively inexpensive to maintain, and the use of a hose or tube makes for a relatively low-cost maintenance item compared to other pump types. Peristaltic pumps also minimize shear forces experienced by the fluid, which may help to keep colloids and slurry fluids from separating.

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Garden Hose Connectors

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Winder Watch Box

Fleece Slipper Socks

nylon cable clamp

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Capacitor Run Motor

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Helical Gear Cutting

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Self Lubricating Bearing

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Automatic Machine Vending

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Components of an innerspring mattress

2008-11-09T05:37:00.000-08:00

The core of the mattress supports the sleeper’s body. Modern spring mattress cores, often called "innersprings," are made up of steel coil springs, or "coils."

The gauge of the coils is another factor which determines firmness and support. Coils are measured in quarter increments. The lower the number, the thicker the spring. In general, higher-quality mattress coils have a 14-gauge (1.63 mm) diameter. Coils of 14 to 15.5-gauge (1.63 to 1.37 mm) give more easily under pressure, while a 12.5-gauge (1.94 mm) coil, the thickest typically available, feels quite firm.

Connections between the coils help the mattress retain its shape. Most coils are connected by interconnecting wires; pocketed coils are not connected, but the pockets preserve the mattress shape.

There are four different types of mattress coils:

Bonnell coils are the oldest and most common. First adapted from buggy seat springs of the 19th century, they are still prevalent in less expensive mattresses. Bonnell coils are hourglass-shaped, and the ends of the wire are knotted or wrapped around the top and bottom circular portion of the coil and self-tied.
Marshall coils, also called "pocketed coils," are each wrapped in a fabric encasement and usually are tempered, or in the case of the Simmons Beautyrest carbon magnesium is added. Some manufacturers pre-compress these coils, which makes the mattress firmer and allows for motion separation between the sides of the bed.
Offset coils are designed to hinge, thus conforming to body shape. They are very sturdy, stable innersprings that provide great support.
Continuous coils Or Mira-coils, Work by a hinging effect, similar to that of offset coils. In a basic sense a continuous coil is simply that, one continuous coil in and up and down fashion forming one row (usually from head to toe) of what appear to be individual coils. The advantages of how firm a support the continuous coil provides it is somewhat tempered with the 'noise' associated from a typical mira coil unit.
Air mattresses use one or more air chambers instead of springs to provide support. Quality and price can range from inexpensive ones used occasionally for camping, all the way up to high-end luxury beds. Air mattresses designed for typical bedroom use cost about the same as inner-spring mattresses with comparable features.

Several companies currently produce adjustable firmness air mattresses. In 1981, Comfortaire began manufacturing and marketing air mattresses that looked conventional but allowed users to adjust the firmness. Select Comfort patented a variant and began marketing them in 1987.

Adjustable air mattresses come in a variety of models from basic, no-frills ones that measure about 7" in height, to high-profile, 15" tall hybrids that contain several types of foam, pillow tops, and digital pumps with memory, for individual pressure settings.

Air bladder construction varies from a simple polyethylene bag to internally baffled, multiple chambers of latex (vulcanized rubber) with bonded cotton exteriors. Mattresses have a layer of foam above the air chambers for added cushioning. The air chambers, top and sidewall foam all sit inside a removable two piece cover that looks like the outside of a standard innerspring mattress. These high-end luxury Air Beds are also known as soft sided Air Beds.

Medical versions of these adjustable firmness mattresses have even greater control mechanisms which include features like frequently changing pressure to prevent bed sores.

Upholstery layers cover the mattress and provide cushioning and comfort. Some manufacturers call the mattress core the "support layer" and the upholstery layer the "comfort layer." The upholstery layer consists of three parts: the insulator, the middle upholstery, and the quilt.

The insulator separates the mattress core from the middle upholstery. It is usually made of fiber or mesh and is intended to keep the middle upholstery in place.

The middle upholstery comprises all the material between the insulator and the quilt. It is usually made from materials which are intended to provide comfort to the sleeper, including regular foam, viscoelastic foam, felt, polyester fibers, cotton fibers, convoluted (“egg-crate”) foam, and non-woven fiber pads.

The quilt is the top layer of the mattress. Made of light foam or fibers stitched to the underside of the ticking, it provides a soft surface texture to the mattress and can be found in varying degrees of firmness. The protective fabric cover which encases the mattress is called ticking. It is usually made to match the foundation and comes in a wide variety of colors and styles. Most ticking is made of synthetic fibers like polyester, or acrylic; or of natural materials such as latex, cotton, silk, and wool.

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History of Claw crane

2008-11-03T23:13:00.000-08:00

These machines became popular in the United States in the late 1980s, with a significant presence at Pizza Hut restaurants. Later on, they would spread to other venues. By the early 1990s, the NFL began to advertise their teams with stuffed footballs of each team placed in some of the machines. Soon after, the MLB, NBA, and NHL also joined, although the NBA no longer uses these machines as a means of advertisement.

By the middle 1990s, the machines' popularity had made such establishments as Safeway, Fry's Supermarkets, K-Mart, and Wal-Mart a staple of their locations. Some hotels also acquired them to satisfy their younger guests, as did sports venues that would stuff them with collectibles related to their home teams.

In the 1995 Disney/Pixar computer-animated film "Toy Story", Buzz Lightyear and Sheriff Woody climb into a claw vending machine filled with claw-worshipping aliens.

In 2007, the claw machine became playable over the internet. Before January 23, 2008, visitors to SuperClaw were able to play real-life crane machines, using multiple video feeds and web browser controls to position the claw over a selection of plush prizes.

In East Asia, notably Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, claw vending machines are extremely popular. There are entire video arcades dedicated to hosting these machines.

Japanese claw vending machines are sometimes called UFO catchers, where "UFO" stands for Unidentified Flying Object. UFO catcher is a specific model of claw vending machine produced by Sega whose name has come to be used as a genericized trademark.

In China, machines have been known to stock domestic and foreign cigarettes.

In East Asia, live animals are occasionally the prize in the claw game. In Chinese supermarkets, a live crab or lobster can be won, presumably to be eaten by the winner. In Japan, pet turtles can be won. Of course, these prizes are in addition to the standard teddy bears and toys that are offered by claw games in other parts of the world.

In South Korea, prizes are extremely varied and have included a Black & Decker power drill, women's underwear, a beard trimmer, a voucher for an inflatable raft, knee pads, fishing hooks, a radio-controlled toy helicopter, and a package of US $2 bills.

The ability of the crane machine owner to set features such as a "payout percentage" obviously raises the question of whether these machines should be considered gambling devices in a legal sense, alongside slot machines. In the United States, claw vending machines are typically specifically exempted from statutes which regulate gambling devices, contingent upon compliance with certain rules. In the state of Michigan, for example, this exemption applies only if the wholesale value of the prizes inside is below a certain threshold, and if these prizes are actually retrievable with the claw. [4] Other states hardly regulate crane machines at all. In addition, some attorneys have advised claw machine owners to avoid using the word "skill" in the game description decal present on most machines. [5]

In other jurisdictions, such as Alberta, Canada, skill cranes are illegal unless the player is allowed to make repeated attempts (on a single credit) until he or she succeeds in winning a prize. [6] Skill cranes in "single-play" mode (where the player has only one chance per credit to try for a prize) were found by the Ontario Court of Appeal to be essentially games of chance, and therefore prohibited except at fairs or exhibitions, where they are covered by an exemption. [7]

State governments have been known to periodically inspect crane games to ensure compliance with the statutes. For example, in a 2008 inspection of New Jersey boardwalk games, inspectors tested whether the claw had enough tension to grip prizes, and whether they could win a prize once in approximately 12 attempts.

Glass Wool Insulation

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Emergency Jump Starter

brass plumbing fittings

chemical glow stick

Acrylic Soap Dish

brushless micro motor

K D Furniture

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Crude Coal Tar

Giant Latex Balloons

Ceiling Light Diffuser

Claw crane

2008-11-03T23:09:00.000-08:00

A claw crane (also called a Plush Crane Machine, UFO Catcher, Candy Crane, Claw Machine, Arcade Claw, Crane Game or Skill Crane) is a type of arcade game known as a merchandiser. They are commonly found in video arcades, supermarkets, restaurants, movie theaters, and Bowling alleys.

A claw consists of many parts but the basic components are a PCB, power supply, currency detector, credit/timer display, joystick, wiring harness, bridge assembly, xport and claw.

The cabinet is usually constructed of medium density fibreboard (MDF). Some cabinets are made of aluminum alloy, which makes it easier to relocate as well as cheaper to produce.

The window is normally made of glass or a cheaper-to-manufacturer substitute plexiglas. The marquee is a branded graphic (sometimes created specifically for restaurants or an operators business name) behind a plexiglas front.

A claw vending machine consists of prizes, usually plush toys or alternatives such as jewelry, capsuled toys, hats, dolls, shirts, candy, electronics and even live animals. Higher end prizes are sometimes placed in a plastic bag so the toy is harder to pick up. The player puts coins into the machine, which then allows the player to manipulate a joystick that controls the claw for a variable time (controlled by the operator) usually 15 to 30 seconds (in some cases, a claw vending machine might offer a minute of time). The player is able to move the claw back, forth and sideways, and some machines allow the user to move the claw after it has has partially descended.

At the end of that time (or earlier if the player presses a trigger button on the joystick), the claw descend down and makes an attempt to grip. After making the gripping attempt, the claw then moves over an opening in the corner of the case and releases its contents. If the player is successful, then the prize the claw is holding is dropped into the opening and dispensed through a chute into a hatch for pickup.

An alternative version of the machine popular in arcades is the "two button" version: one marked with a forward arrow, one with a right arrow. The crane starts near the front, left side of the machine and the user presses first the forward button to move the crane towards the back of the cabinet. Once the button is released the crane stops moving and the button cannot be used again, thus requiring the user to judge depth accurately in one attempt. After this, the right button becomes active in a similar way and as soon as it is released, the crane drops to a certain depth and then raises, closing its claw on the way and returning to the drop hatch in the front left corner. These versions are generally considered to be more difficult. However, the button type machines typically do not feature the timers which are commonly found on joystick type machines. In addition, they often have better grip strength than joystick type machines.

The success rate winning a prize is dependent on several factors, including operator settings, player skill, depth perception, type of machine, and prizes available (size, density, and distribution). A prize may be lost due to player inexperience or player error in manipulating the claw. Many modern cranes use a computer to determine a payout percentage based on the operators settings, in the manner that the claw would have a strong grasp on objects only on a certain percentage of attempts. All modern claw machines incorporate some means for the owner to adjust at least the strength of the claw's grip and how closely the claw's fingers pull together, usually with screws on the mechanism or potentiometers on the PCB. Even on older cranes, the grip strength can be adjusted by adding circuit components or additional hardware. [1] Some machines incorporate a feature called "two-level claw power" , which, when enabled, causes the claw to at first grip at full strength, but then weaken its grip to the "normal" level after a brief delay. This can cause the crane to initially pick up the prize, but then drop it. [2]

Late-model, high-end claw machines are fully computerized and are remotely programmable by the owner (via a hand-held device). Settings and features commonly available include [3]:

Claw strength and aperture
Motion speed, in any direction (that is, the claw can be made to drop slowly but come up quickly, or move right faster than it moves forward)
Pick-up strength and retain strength can be specified separately, as well as the delay between pick-up and return.
Payout percentage: Cranes equipped with this setting have onboard programming which cause the claw's grip parameters to be continually adjusted to achieve a pre-set payout percentage, usually specified with respect to the value of the prizes inside
"Fail limit": If the machine dispenses too many prizes in a given time period, it stops accepting coins and is "out of order"
Free replay can be granted on a certain percentage of plays
Instant replay: the user can opt to touch a certain button and have the claw automatically move to where it was last dropped, in order to "try again" for a prize that was "just missed" on the previous try
Some cranes are also able to display the number and value of prizes won in a given time period [3], enabling the owner to keep track of how profitable the machine is.

Clearly, these parameters can be used to set a crane to never deliver any prizes, but in that case the machine would rarely be played and become unprofitable for the owner. On the other hand, if the crane were set to always grip strongly, then it would become so easy to win prizes from it that the owner would not profit much, if at all, from operating the machine.

Some machines can be configured to basically be games of chance. On a machine with a flimsy grip and a mechanism controlling the odds of a strong grip, little skill is involved in winning prizes by attempting to grasp them with the claw: the crane's random number generator decides whether the claw will grip or not. However, if the claw's grip strength is set such that it is capable of holding a prize — even tenuously — on most attempts, then experienced players will win more often than inexperienced players because an experienced player will be able to identify which toys will be easiest to win and how they should be grasped by the claw. It is also worth noting that, even given a machine with a very weak claw grip or low payout percentage, players have discovered various techniques for using the claw to drag or tip prizes into the chute without necessarily grasping them.

Claw machines holding expensive prizes, such as a Wii video game console or an iPhone are typically programmed so that the grip strength of the claw is determined according to a payout percentage that is profitable to the operator.[citation needed] Experienced skill crane players also say that boxes are among the most difficult kinds of objects to pick up with any claw, regardless of its settings.

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Cardboard Photo Holders

HID Electronic Ballast

Magnet Memo Board

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White Porcelain Dinnerware

corelle dinnerware sets

Anglo-Saxon world of Glass

2008-11-03T23:05:00.000-08:00

Islamic world
In the medieval Islamic world, the first clear, colourless, high-purity glasses were produced by Muslim chemists, architects and engineers in the 9th century.[citation needed] Examples include Silica glass and colourless high-purity glass invented by Abbas Ibn Firnas (810-887), who was the first to produce glass from sand and stones.[45] The Arab poet al-Buhturi (820-897) described the clarity of such glass, "Its colour hides the glass as if it is standing in it without a container."[46]

Stained glass was also first produced by Muslim architects in Southwest Asia using coloured glass rather than stone.[citation needed] In the 8th century, the Arab chemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing coloured glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.[47]

The parabolic mirror was first described by Ibn Sahl in his On the Burning Instruments in the 10th century, and later described again in Ibn al-Haytham's On Burning Mirrors and Book of Optics (1021).[48] By the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Islamic Spain. The first glass factories were also built by Muslim craftsmen in the Islamic world.[citation needed] The first glass factories in Christian Europe were later built in the 11th century by Muslim Egyptian craftsmen in Corinth, Greece.

Medieval Europe
Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. Around 1000 AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.[50]

Until the 12th century, stained glass -- glass to which metallic or other impurities had been added for coloring -- was not widely used.

The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres. The spheres were swung out to form cylinders and then cut while still hot, after which the sheets were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice.

The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-19th century. In this process, the glassblower would spin approximately 9 pounds (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes.

Stainless Steel Bangle

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R C Glider

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Behavior of antique glass

2008-11-03T23:00:00.000-08:00

The observation that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a matter of centuries. It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid. [24] In actuality, the likely reason for this is that when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the Crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became thicker as the glass spun. When actually installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed thicker side down for the sake of stability and visual sparkle.[25] Occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down or thicker on either side of the window's edge, as would be caused by carelessness at the time of installation.

Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.

Several other points exemplify the misconception of the 'cathedral glass' theory:

Writing in the American Journal of Physics,[26] physicist Edgar D. Zanotto states "...the predicted relaxation time for GeO2 at room temperature is 1032 years. Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer".
If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more — but this is not observed. Similarly, prehistoric obsidian blades should have lost their edge; this is not observed either (although obsidian may have a different viscosity from window glass).[20]
If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then the effect should be noticeable in antique telescopes. Any slight deformation in the antique telescopic lenses would lead to a dramatic decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed.

There are many examples of centuries-old glass shelving which has not bent, even though it is under much higher stress from gravitational loads than vertical window glass.
Some glasses have a glass transition temperature close to or below room temperature. The behaviour of a material that has a glass transition close to room temperature depends upon the timescale during which the material is manipulated. If the material is hit it may break like a solid glass, however if the material is left on a table for a week it may flow like a liquid. This simply means that for the fast timescale its transition temperature is above room temperature, but for the slow one it is below. The shift in temperature with timescale is not very large however as indicated by the transition of polypropylene glycol of -72 °C and -71 °C over different timescales. [17] To observe window glass flowing as liquid at room temperature we would have to wait a much longer time than any human can exist. Therefore it is safe to consider a glass a solid far enough below its transition temperature: Cathedral glass does not flow because its glass transition temperature is many hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Close to this temperature there are interesting time-dependent properties. One of these is known as aging. Many polymers that we use in daily life such as rubber, polystyrene and polypropylene are in a glassy state but they are not too far below their glass transition temperature. Their mechanical properties may well change over time and this is serious concern when applying these materials in construction.
Colors in glass may be obtained by addition of coloring ions that are homogeneously distributed and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses).[6] Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt%[27] produce a green tint which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.[38] Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide.

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Contemporary glass production

2008-11-03T22:55:00.000-08:00

Following the glass batch preparation and mixing the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces and day tanks.[10]

After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles) the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, which created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish. [12] Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.

Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses.

Various surface treatment techniques, coatings, or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).

Glassmaking in the laboratory

A vitrification experiment for the study of nuclear waste disposal at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
Failed laboratory glass melting test. The striations must be avoided through good homogenization.New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali oxides and hydroxides, alkaline earth oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).[13] Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.[13][14]

See also: Optical lens design, Fabrication and testing of optical components

Besides common silica-based glasses, many other inorganic and organic materials may also form glasses, including plastics (e.g., acrylic glass), carbon, metals, carbon dioxide (see below), phosphates, borates, chalcogenides, fluorides, germanates (glasses based on GeO2), tellurites (glasses based on TeO2), antimonates (glasses based on Sb2O3), arsenates (glasses based on As2O3), titanates (glasses based on TiO2), tantalates (glasses based on Ta2O5), nitrates, carbonates and many other substances.[6]

Some glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fibre optics and other specialized technical applications. These include fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, aluminosilicate, phosphate and chalcogenide glasses.

Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes which can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions.[15] In 2006 Italian scientists created an amorphous phase of carbon dioxide using extreme pressure. The substance was named amorphous carbonia(a-CO2) and exhibits an atomic structure resembling that of Silica.

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PEX Pipe Fitting

tile drill bits

Electric Plastic Kettle

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Elegant Womens Suits

Dynamo LED Lantern

Stoneware Dinnerware Set

R/C Racing Boat

Sunrise Alarm Clock

Carbon Tennis Racket

Disposable Hand Towels

t8 fluorescent lamps

beckham soccer jersey

fabric memo board

textile spare parts

Mountain bikes

2008-11-03T06:34:00.000-08:00

Many newer mountain bikes have a full suspension design. In the past, mountain bikes had a rigid frame and a rigid fork. In the early 1990s, mountain bikes started to have front suspension forks. This made riding on rough terrain easier on a rider's arms. The first suspension forks had about 1½ to 2 inches (38 to 50 mm) of suspension travel. Soon after, some frame designers came out with a full suspension frame which gave riders a smoother ride throughout the ride.

Newer suspension frame and fork designs have reduced weight, increased amount of suspension travel, and improved feel. Many lock out the rear suspension while the rider is pedaling hard or climbing, in order to improve pedaling efficiency. Most suspension frames and forks have about 4 inches (100 mm) of suspension travel. More aggressive suspension frames and forks made for downhill racing and freeriding have as much as 8 or 9 inches (200 or 230 mm) of suspension travel.

Many riders still prefer to ride a hardtail frame, and almost all mountain bicycle riders use a suspension fork. Well-known suspension fork manufacturers include Manitou, Marzocchi, Fox Racing Shox, Rock Shox, Suntour, RST and (to a lesser extent) Magura, White Brothers and Maverick. Some Cycle manufacturers also make their own suspension systems to fully complement the bike set-up.

Although much less common, some road bicycles do incorporate suspensions, particularly the Soft Tail variety mentioned above. One example is Trek Bicycle Corporation's s.p.a (Suspension Performance Advantage) rear suspension, offered on some of their Pilot models, but the system was removed for the 2008 model year. Virtually all bicycles produced by Alex Moulton bicycles also have very effective full suspension, due to the low unsuspended mass of the small wheels and high pressure tires, a characteristic of the unconventional design of these bicycles.

Many recumbent bicycles have at least a rear suspension because the rider is usually unable to lift themselves off of the seat while riding. Single pivot is usually adequate when the pedaling thrust is horizontal - that is, forwards rather than downwards. This is usually the case provided the bottom bracket is higher than the seat's base height. Where the bottom bracket is significantly lower than the seat base, there may still be some pedalling-induced bounce.

Short-wheelbase recumbents benefit from front suspension, because the front wheel is often smaller than the rear wheel and bumps are unduly felt without it.

The Softride Suspension System was launched at the Interbike 1989 bike show. The original SRS systems consisted of two foam filled fiberglass boxes bonded together with a viscoelastic layer. Originally intended for the use in mountain bikes, Softride produced its first full-fledged mountain bike, the PowerCurve, in 1991. During 1996 Softride released its first aluminum frame road bike, the Classic TT. The Softride Suspension System is used almost exclusively for triathlon racing. Softride ceased bicycle production in 2007. [8]

A very closely related suspension design to the Softride is the Zipp 2001, a contemporary competing beam bicycle, where the suspension was in the hinge, rather than in flex of the beam itself.

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Active Braking Pivot

2008-11-03T06:31:00.000-08:00

Trek released the Active Braking Pivot (ABP) in late-2007. The ABP system uses a rear pivot concentric to the rear axle, and the brake is mounted on the seatstay. This allows the suspension to pivot freely under braking, without brake-induced suspension stiffening (sometimes called brake jack). Other suspension systems (FSR, VPP, Maestro) do the same thing with a different set-up (see above).
Trek also introduced a Full Floater system to go along with the ABP. The Full Floater system mounts the rear shock to two moving points in the suspension (rocker link and an extension of the chainstay). Other systems mount the shock to one end on the swing-arm, and the other to a fixed mount on the frame. This means as one part of the suspension compresses the shock, the other end of the shock moves as well. This allows Trek engineers more freedom to more accurately and precisely tune the system's leverage ratio.
The significance of ABP and Full Floater is that while other designs focused on the highly over-hyped axle path, Trek's innovation addressed brake-induced suspension movement and shock leverage ratio -- areas that improve performance.

The "Monolink" made by Maverick Bikes uses 3 pivot points and place the bottom bracket on a floating linkage between the front and rear triangle. It was designed by Paul Turner. The monolink design is unique in that is uses a shock body that is integrated into the rear triangle, and that the saddle to bottom bracket distance changes as the suspension is compressed, although not as large as a URT design. The suspension is more active when in the saddle, as pressure on the cranks actively works against the suspension. However, because of this property, there is less bob in out of the saddle sprints. The monolink design is also unique in having a rearward axle path, which is similar to the angle of attack of the front suspension. Examples are the Maverick ML7/5, ML8, Klein Palomino, and Seven Duo.

The "Equilink" suspension system was developed by Felt Bicycles for their full suspension line. The system is a "four bar" suspension with 2 pivots behind the bottom bracket and 2 behind the seat tube. The key feature of the system is an "equilink bar" that connects the upper pivot link and the lower pivot link. Felt contends that this system "equalizes" movement of the suspension in response to pedalling forces by linking the motion of the upper and lower linkages.

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Concrete Boom Pump

Leather Embossed Handbag

Flexible Shower Hose

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industrial popcorn machine

FSR System

2008-11-03T06:29:00.000-08:00

The bike company Specialized worked with Leitner to develop a heavier-duty version of the four-bar/Horst Link suspension which was marketed as the Specialized FSR. The popular FSR system works by providing a wheel path that helps prevents the suspension to preload or unload (squatting and locking) during acceleration and braking. The design is regarded by some as superior to single-pivot/four-bar system due to other designs having a wheel path that either squats or "locks", depending on the position of the swingarm. The FSR system uses a wheel path that is in the middle of either squating and lockout throughout most of the travel. The FSR proved popular, and became a standard for full suspension designs. Specialized bought several of Leitner's patents in May 1998 and other manufacturers must now pay license fees to Specialized for the use of the 'Horst Link' suspension design. The Horst Link suspension design is the most leased or "borrowed" suspension design. It is very popular with companies such as Norco, Ellsworth, Chumba, KHS, and Fuji.[4]

In 2003 Specialized introduced the Brain, an external inertia valve designed to effectively eliminate pedal bob. The system utilizes a brass weight inside a cylinder situated atop the non-drive-side chainstay, near the rear dropout, and connected to the shock directly or through a hose. The weight closes the shock valving and deactivates the rear shock at rest. Upward force from rough terrain displaces the weight, opening the valve and engaging the suspension. In the original Brain mechanism, when the terrain evens out, the weight returns to its original position through a return spring, and deactivates the shock again. The position of the weight near the rear axle is designed to prevent downward pedaling force from affecting the mechanism while optimizing response from terrain. A newer version of the Brain was developed that utilizes the rebound hydraulic fluid flow to return the weight to its rest position instead of relying on a return spring. This was developed to address a noticeable delay in the shock activation/deactivation.
The VPP (or Virtual Pivot Point) is a linkage designed bike that is built to activate the suspension differently depending on what inputs the suspension has received. When most people think "Virtual Pivot", they think of the VPP™ bikes by Santa Cruz™ and Intense™. These bikes use a specific type of Virtual Pivot design that was originally developed and patented by Outland Bicycles™ about 10 years ago. The patents cover a specific linkage configuration and rear wheel travel path that is designed to aid the pedaling performance of a rear suspension bike without negatively affecting the overall bump absorption capabilities of the suspension. Yeti Cycles has created a unique rail system to eliminate pedal jacking. The DW-Link is another design licensed to Iron Horse and Independent Fabrications. Giant's Maestro is yet another design that works very well. The Maestro and DW-Link suspension designs are just as efficient as the FSR system and the VPP. They also have the benefit of having a progressive spring rate. Patents have drawn definite lines among the manufacturers.

To define a VPP/DW-link/Maestro suspension design, imagine a line that follows the path the rear axle takes as it moves through its travel. Continue it into a complete circle. The center of the circle will be the pivot point. It will be a virtual point in space and not an actual pivot on the bicycle. It can either be a fix point or one that moves around as the suspension compresses (floating), depending on the design.

The VPP family of suspension systems are in fact four bar designs. They have short links instead of the longer links on a conventional four bar (chainstay and rocker).

The VPP (Virtual Pivot Point) system used by Santa Cruz and Intense, also claims to have reduced the problem of pedal bob. Soon after the VPP was introduced, the creation of the Progressive Suspension 5th Element rear shock (based on Currnut's platform damper) near the beginning of the Millennium allowed riders to adjust almost any frame, regardless of design, to be pedalled without the pedal bob that plagued earlier designs. Other companies have followed Progressive's lead (mainly Manitou with its SPV system based on the 5th Element and Fox's ProPedal which uses a shim stack rather than an air pressurized valve) and a revolution in suspension design is under way. However, these 'intelligent' shocks always have to compromise between their resistance to bob and performance with small bumps. VPP designs help reduce pedal bob by virtue of their design and thus can use a rear shock with little or no platform damping. This allows the suspension to be "fully active" and provides great small bump performance while also remaining plush on high speed descents.

Many think the tried and trusted technology of the four bar linkage with a comparatively simple shock still offers the best performance. However, the four bar linkage causes pedal bobbing, lockout, and brake jack. With the rise of more complicated shocks and a larger market share of full suspension bikes mountain bike suspension tuners have now arrived. It is now possible to have shocks tuned to individual rider's desires.

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window cling film

sun visor monitor

Auto Electric Blanket

mini gas chopper

commercial beverage cooler

Rear suspension

2008-11-03T06:26:00.000-08:00

Perhaps because front suspension has been easier to implement and more readily adopted, it is often assumed, and rear suspension is sometimes synonymous with full suspension.

Full suspension mountain bike technology has made great advances since first appearing in the early 1990s. Early full suspension frames were heavy and tended to bounce up and down while a rider pedaled. This movement was called pedal bob, kickback, or monkey motion and took power out of a rider's pedal stoke — especially during climbs up steep hills. Input from hard braking efforts (known as brake jack) also negatively affected early full suspension designs. When a rider hit the brakes, these early designs lost some of their ability to absorb bumps — and this happened in situations where the rear suspension was needed most.

The problems of pedal bob and brake jack began to be solved in the early 1990s. One of the first successful full suspension bikes was designed by Mert Lawwill, a former motorcycle champion. His bike, the Gary Fisher RS-1, was released in 1990. It adapted the A-arm suspension design from sports car racing, and was the first four bar linkage in mountain biking. This design solved the twin problems of unwanted braking and pedaling input to the rear wheel, but the design wasn't flawless. Problems remained with suspension action under acceleration, and the RS-1 couldn't use traditional cantilever brakes. A lightweight, powerful disc brake wasn't developed until the mid 1990s, and the disc brake used on the RS-1 was its downfall.

Horst Leitner began working on the problem of chain torque and its effect on suspension in the mid 1970's with motorcycles. In 1985 Leitner built a prototype mountain bike incorporating what became known later as the "Horst Link". Leitner formed a mountain bike and research company, AMP research, that began building full-suspension mountain bikes. In 1990, AMP introduced the Horst link as a feature of a fully independent linkage rear suspension for mountain bikes. The AMP B-3 and B-4 XC full-suspension bikes featured active Horst Link/Macpherson strut rear suspensions and optional disc brakes. A later model, the B-5, was equipped with both the Horst link and a four-bar active link suspension featuring up to 125mm (5 inches) of travel on a bicycle weighing around 10.5kg (23 pounds). For 10 years AMP Research manufactured their full-suspension bikes in small quantities in Laguna Beach, California, including the manufacture of their own cable-actuated-hydraulic disc brakes, hubs, shocks and front suspension forks.
The Soft Tail (also Softail) relies on the flexing of the rear triangle and a rear shock or elastomer placed in line with the seat stays. Soft tails are a variation of the original Amp Research Mac-Strut design (technically a 3 bar suspension design). Soft tails have no moving parts, besides the shock/elastomer, making it extremely simple. It maintains pedaling efficiency and power delivery because of the solid chainstays. They tend to be extremely light compared to other rear suspension types. Soft tails are out of favor now because of the limited rear axle travel of these designs - typically around 1 inch. Some examples include the Trek STP and the Moots YBB.

The Single Pivot is the simplest type of rear suspension. It simply consists of a pivot near the bottom bracket and a single swingarm to the rear axle. The rear axle will always rotate in a part-circle around the pivot point. Some implementations use linkages to attach the rear triangle to the rear shock for a progressive spring rate. Other implementations directly attach the rear triangle to the rear shock for a more linear rate. Santa Cruz's Superlight is such an example. The main benefit of this design is its simplicity. There are few moving parts, relatively easy to design and has good small bump compliance. Its flaws, however, are that the design suffers from bob, brake jacking, and chain growth. Manufacturers that use a single pivot design are Fisher, Morewood, Orange, Cannondale, Santa Cruz, Mountain Cycle, small boutique frame builders such as bcd, and many inexpensive department store bikes.

The "Unified Rear Triangle" or "URT" for short, keeps the bottom bracket and rear axle directly connected at all times. The pivot is placed between the rear triangle and the front triangle so that the rear axle and bottom bracket move as one piece, and the saddle and handlebars move as another piece. This simple design uses only one pivot, which keeps down the number of moving parts. It can be easily modified into a single-speed, and has the benefit of zero chain growth and consistent front shifting. On the other hand, when the URT rider shifts any weight from the seat to the pedals, he or she is essentially standing on the swingarm, resulting in a massive increase in unsprung weight, and as a result the suspension tends to stop working. Because of this effect, along with persistent suspension bob and a constantly changing saddle-to-pedal distance, the URT design has fallen out of favor in recent years.[2]

Examples of bike with this kind of suspension include the Klein Mantra and Schwinn S-10.

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emergency rechargeable light

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Bicycle suspension

2008-11-03T06:24:00.000-08:00

Bicycle suspension refers to the system or systems used to suspend the rider and all or part of the bicycle in order to protect them from the roughness of the terrain over which they travel. Bicycle suspension are used primarily on mountain bicycles, but are also common on hybrid bicycles, and can even be found on some road bicycles.

Bicycle suspension can be implemented in a variety of ways:

Suspension front fork
Suspension stem (although these have fallen out of favor)
Suspension seatpost
Rear suspension
or any combination of the above. Bicycles with suspension front forks and rear suspensions are referred to as full suspension bikes. Additionally, suspension mechanisms can be incorporated in the seat or saddle, or the hubs.

Besides providing obvious rider comfort, suspensions improve both safety and efficiency by keeping one or both wheels in contact with the ground and allowing the rider's mass to move over the ground in a flatter trajectory.

Front suspension is often implemented with a set of shock absorbers in the front fork. The suspension travel and handling characteristics vary depending on the type of mountain biking the fork is designed for. For instance, manufacturers produce different forks for cross-country (XC), downhill (DH), and freeride riding.

Suspension fork design has advanced in recent years with suspension forks becoming increasingly sophisticated. The amount of travel available has typically increased. When suspension forks were introduced 80-100mm of travel was deemed sufficient for a downhill mountain bike. Typically this amount of travel is now more normal for cross country disciplines. Downhill forks can now offer in the region of 200 to 230mm of travel for handling the most extreme terrain.

Other advances in design include adjustable travel allowing riders to adapt the forks travel to the specific terrain profile. eg less travel for uphill sections more travel for downhill sections. Advanced designs also often feature the ability to lockout the fork to completely eliminate or drastically reduce the fork's travel for more efficient riding over smooth sections of terrain. This lockout can sometime be activated remotely by a cable and lever on the handlebars.

The shock absorber usually consists of two parts: a spring and a damper or dashpot. The spring may be implemented with a steel or titanium coil, an elastomer, or even compressed air. The choice of spring material has a fundamental effect on the characteristics of the fork as a whole. Coil spring forks are often heavier than designs which use compressed air springs, however they are more easily designed to keep a linear spring rate throughout their travel. Substituting titanium coils in favor of steel coils in a design can decrease the weight of the design but leads to an increase in expense. Air springs work by utilising the characteristic of compressed air to resist further compression. As the "spring" is provided by the compressed air rather than a coil of metal they can often be made lighter; this makes their use more common in cross country designs. Another advantage of this type of fork design is that the spring rate can easily be adjusted by adjusting the pressure of the air in the spring. This allows a fork to be effectively tuned to a rider's weight. One disadvantages of this design is the difficulty in achieving a linear spring rate throughout the fork's action. As the fork compresses, the air held inside the air spring also compresses; towards the end of the fork's travel, further compression of the fork requires ever increasing compression of the compressed air with the spring. This results in an increase in spring rate. Increasing the volume of the air inside the spring can reduce this effect but the volume of the spring is ultimately limited as it needs to be contained within the dimension of the fork leg.

The damper is usually implemented by forcing oil to pass through one or more small openings or shim stacks. On some models, the spring, the damper, or both may be adjusted for rider weight, riding style, terrain, or any combination of these or other factors. The two components may be separated with the spring mechanism in one leg and the damper in the other.

Some manufacturers, especially Cannondale, have tried other variations including a single shock built into the steering tube above the crown and a fork with just a single leg that has a shock built into it. Others have marketed suspension forks that employ linkages to provide the mechanical action instead of relying upon telescoping elements.

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Marx's indictment of elite

2008-10-30T07:40:00.000-07:00

Marx's indictment of elite systems of justice contains similar observations:

"The civilization and justice of bourgeois order comes out in its lurid light whenever the slaves and drudges of that order rise against their masters. Then this civilization and justice stand forth as undisguised savagery and lawless revenge...the infernal deeds of the soldiery reflect the innate spirit of that civilization of which they are the mercenary vindicators....The bourgeoisie of the whole world, which looks complacently upon the wholesale massacre after the battle, is convulsed by horror at the destruction of brick and mortar."[168] More generally, Marx perceived that "[y]our very ideas [of freedom, culture, law, etc] are but the outgrowth of the conditions of your bourgeois production and bourgeois property, just as your jurisprudence is but the will of your class made into a law for all, a will whose essential character and direction are determined by the economical conditions of existence of your class."[10]

A large percentage of lawyers do work to defend the interests of corporate and state elites— though the potential for change becomes apparent when despite pressures, incentives and other elite-driven selection processes, some determined lawyers don't. The law has also been shaped by their struggles, as well as those of other constituencies e.g. labor movements, women's and civil rights movements or even the liberal values of economically conservative elites who don't want state oppression to affect them personally, or are in favor of oppression only to maintain their privileges (thus opposing laws against gays, ethnic groups, abortion etc). Nevertheless, if it's true, as Frederik Douglass said, that "power concedes nothing without a demand; it never has and it never will"[169] wage slavery, so long as it exists, will remain a strong factor ensuring the resiliency of a system of law that overcriminalizes the powerless and decriminalizes the powerful. The law can ensure that moral principles are applied, but will tend to do so only when it does not fundamentally alter the hierarchical status quo that is at the root of most crime in society. Given that most lawyers and judges will resist the idea that they maintain a system of injustice, this double standard will be maintained by ignoring the corrupting influences of elite rule on the general population, and through the application of rationalizations, selective rationality and morality (e.g. criminalizing marijuana and other drugs rather than the more lethal tobacco, punishing petty thieves rather than big exploiting corporations, prosecuting subnational terrorists rather than state war criminals, criminalizing individual support for terrorist groups, but not state support for dictatorships or terrorist groups like the Contras, etc). Wage slavery also contributes to making powerful groups unaccountable to the law (e.g. US violations of international law,[170] police brutality[171] etc). The capacity to unjustly and arbitrarily influence or violate the law is related to the concentration of power and wealth in the hands of the few. Those who advocate the elimination of wage slavery and the decentralization of power and wealth, (e.g. anarchists) maintain that the law —together with the general culture—should more pervasively reflect human instincts of justice and freedom and should therefore be used not to maintain hierarchy, but to maintain an absence of hierarchy by placing a heavy burden of proof on those who advocate authoritarian measures such as violence and exploitation.

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v • d • e
Such legal notions are based on the belief that hierarchical institutions magnify the worst features of human nature (violence, greed etc) and that by relinquishing their subordinate role as subservient, unthinking and insentient "cogs in a machine", people would feel more independent, responsible and aware of their actions; they wouldn't be indoctrinated by centers of power, and would become appalled by behavior that now is condoned within the hierarchical institutional structures. From this perspective, the root causes of war and environmental destruction lie in hierarchical mechanisms like wage slavery. In other words, if the state was eliminated and people directly controlled the economy democratically, they would use it for their own benefit rather than for the benefit of elites, and would therefore foster values of solidarity, equality, peace, generosity, creativity and long term survival of the planet.

Several assumptions underlie this rationale:

1 - In hierarchies there's an incentive to not be completely honest with one's superior and to tell him/her want s/he wants to hear. This lack of honest communication builds up the higher it goes up the hierarchy and is reflected once again onto the society by those powerful enough to exert influence – primarily the elite who, having a lot to lose, have strong incentives to subordinate and atomize the general population by spreading untruths.

2 - It becomes easier to abuse people when one has power over them.

3 - Human beings often numb their independent sense of morality when they subordinate themselves to arbitrary decree from above (one can dismiss one's complicity in a destructive system by simply saying "I'm just following orders" or "I'm just doing my job, earning my bread," "My superiors are good and know what they are doing" etc).

4 - Under authority people tend to become instruments of someone else, instead of free agents directing their own destiny, discovering and gaining a taste for more freedom. This entails that even when the outcome of actions is positive, the framework in which they're undertaken will remain to a large extent amoral and fortuitous. From this point of view, hierarchical structures like the state and capitalism foster dependence and a lack of personal responsibility vis a vis humanity and the environment—allowing those on top to influence the lives and thoughts of society, and corrupting human behavior:

Most people don't go around punching and killing people, and the average person wouldn't steal food from a child just because there are no police around and he happened to be hungry. If he did we'd find such behavior pathological, not normal (as you'd expect if we were really so greedy).Yet states have killed millions through war, and corporations will literally take away water from children for profit (e.g. Bechtel in Cochabamba, Bolivia) and kill millions of workers through horrible working conditions and negligence. They act as magnified projections of our worst tendencies, and negate the fact that cooperation is more important for survival than competition, (as Russian scientist Kropotkin demonstrated in his book Mutual Aid). If you count the number of people killed (and the amount of money stolen) by capitalist and state institutions and compare it to the smaller criminals (bank robbers, serial killers, gangs, Islamic terrorists etc), it is not even close. Furthermore, evidence shows that, contrary to popular belief, institutions of power do not restrain criminal behavior, but actually promote the alienation, violence and socio-economic disparity that creates most of these smaller criminals… Even a saint who gains state power will become an important cog in a repressive power structure, just like CEOs and slave owners could be very nice people, yet in their institutional role they are oppressive. "Good" men in power are responsible for much more death and suffering than "evil" men without power, that's why unlike capitalists and Marxists, anarchists have never imposed dictatorship and mass murder on anyone.[172]

According to some thinkers, however, there's something called the "bad apple theory" that argues states are natural structures. Anthropologist David Graeber explains it:

All you need is one group in a fairly large region that decides to be predatory raiders and beat up on their neighbors and everyone has to either militarize their own society, or endure being periodically victimized. But consider this: if we have a biological inclination to be warlike and aggressive, then why is it so few take the former option? Studies show that most tribes don't immediately imitate the aggressive group and start organizing for war in self-defense, but endure the raids (which happen on average every five or ten years) just so they don't have to. If we have a natural tendency, it's not to organize ourselves for war, because even people with a very concrete material interest in doing so often don't do it.[172]

Howard ZinnSome historians , like Howard Zinn argue that most soldiers do not go to war out of an intrinsic desire to kill. They have to be trained, deceived and desensitized:

“Wars don't take place out of the rush of a population demanding war: it's the leaders who demand war and who prepare the population for war. You didn't have the American public clamoring to go to WW1… people did not want to go to war…. That's why Wilson [to get elected] said "no we are not going to war". Then he is elected, and almost immediately calls upon the nation to go to war [and] a massive propaganda campaign was mounted. On the one hand you had the propaganda, and on the other you had the [state] coercion, the draft and the punishment… in other words, it takes powerful inducements and threats to mobilize the young population of a nation for war and if you had a spontaneous urge for war you wouldn't have to do that. The consequence of believing that war happens as a result of human nature is to place the blame on the citizenry, and to take it away from the leaders of the nation who are driving the country to war… it's like telling the poor that your poor because of your own faults,…”[173]

Similarly, Noam Chomsky explained how

“...you want to distinguish between the institution and the individual. So, slavery, for example, or other forms of tyranny, are inherently monstrous, but the individuals participating in them may be the nicest guys you could imagine – benevolent, friendly, nice to their children, even nice to their slaves, caring about other people. I mean, as individuals they may be anything. In their institutional role they are monsters because the institution is monstrous.”[174]

The struggle against wage slavery has often been linked to other anti-hierarchical struggles. For example, Mujeres Libres (English:Free Women) was an anarchist women's organization with over 20,000 members in Spain that aimed to empower working class women by pushing the idea of a "double struggle" for women's liberation and (anti-capitalist anti-statist) social revolution. The organization argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In the revolutionary Spain of the 1930s, many anarchist women were angry with what they viewed as persistent sexism amongst anarchist men and their marginalized status within a movement that ostensibly sought to abolish domination and hierarchy. They saw women's problems as inseparable from the social problems of the day; while they shared their compañero's desire for social revolution and vehemently opposed the Nationalists, they also pushed for recognition of women's abilities and organized in their communities to achieve that goal. Citing the anarchist assertion that the means of revolutionary struggle must model the desired organization of revolutionary society, they rejected mainstream Spanish anarchism's assertion that women's equality would follow automatically from the social revolution. To prepare women for active roles in the anarchist movement, they organized schools, women-only social groups and a women-only newspaper so that women could gain self-esteem and confidence in their abilities and network with one another to develop their political consciousness. Despite these activities, the group refused to identify itself as feminist due to feminism's perceived association with upper class, conservative women in Spain who called for capitalist political reform. Unlike other leftist women's organizations in Spain at the time, the Mujeres Libres was unique in that it insisted on remaining autonomous from the male-dominated CNT, FAI, and FIJL and fought for equal status with these established anarchist organizations.

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